生育支持政策何以有效:性别平等视角下的27国生育支持政策组合与生育率反弹北大核心

中国的生育水平长期提振乏力,借鉴世界低生育率国家总和生育率反弹经验并构建中国特色的生育支持政策体系势在必行。以27个低生育率典型国家为例,在构建追踪数据的基础上,分析不同生育支持政策组合对总和生育率反弹的影响以及性别平等发展水平对政策效果的调节作用。研究发现,相较于支持“男性单职工模式”的政策组合,支持“双职工模式”的政策组合更有利于总和生育率的提升;经济支持政策与总和生育率之间有稳定的正向关系,服务支持政策和时间支持政策对总和生育率的提升效果受到性别平等发展水平的调节;在性别平等发展水平更高的国家,服务支持政策和时间支持政策的效果更明显。生育支持政策的制定应考虑不同类型政策之间的相互协调与组合,并深度思考政策背后的价值导向和政策实施的社会情景,营造性别友好的社会文化环境。     

关于当前生育影响因素的思考

根据我国生育水平来分析影响当前我国生育的因素,并结合社会经济发展,进一步探讨生育影响因素的未来变动与趋势。影响生育的经济因素、社会因素、自然因素以及资源分配或社会平等的政治因素与人们的生育意愿变化等都有抑制生育率提高的作用。生育政策变动、社会保障、人口健康和安全有促进生育率变化的趋向。     

日本生育水平变化分析

日本作为少子老龄化最典型的国家其生育水平的变化非常具有代表性。本文使用"寇尔生育指数模型"分析二战以后日本生育水平的变化,探讨其未来的发展变化趋势。二战后,1947年日本总和生育率达到最高值4.54;之后生育水平不断下降,2005年达到最低值1.26;近年来日本生育水平缓慢提高,2014年总和生育率回升到1.42。日本生育水平下降的主要原因是婚内生育率下降及结婚率的降低。婚内生育率不断下降是由于生育观念转变导致的婚内生育意愿下降造成的,生育不再以传宗接代为目的,也不再是妻子必须履行的义务。结婚率的降低则是因为越来越多的女性参加工作,不愿过早结婚生子。婚内生育率与结婚率变化在生育水平下降的不同阶段表现不同,早期婚内生育率下降是导致总和生育率下降的主要原因,而结婚率的变化仅起到辅助作用;中期结婚率的下降成为总和生育率持续下降的主要诱因,而婚内生育率水平则保持相对稳定的水平。进入21世纪以来,日本生育水平有所回升的主要原因是婚内生育水平缓慢提高,结婚率下降对生育水平的消极作用也几乎释放完毕。未来日本在结婚率保持相对稳定的情况下,要想进一步提高总和生育水平就必须提高婚内生育率。政府必须在降低育儿成本、提高生育家庭的补助等方面制定相关政策,引导家庭多生育子女。     

中国女性的社会经济特征与生育决策

女性的社会经济特征、婚姻地位及家庭结构等因素在家庭生育决策中起着重要作用。对2006年中国健康营养调查中的家庭微观数据的分析结果表明,女性的受教育程度、社会地位等社会经济特征与生育率显著相关;体现家庭结构的丈夫劳动参与和夫妻年龄差距等指标也对生育率有显著影响。另外,通过对城镇与农村的比较分析得出农村女性受教育程度的提高对生育率的影响要大于城镇。     

云南流动人口生育水平研究

本文利用2014年云南省流动人口动态监测调查数据,运用因素分解和标准化的方法,对农业和非农业流动育龄妇女的生育水平及其生育模式差异进行讨论分析,运用标准化的方法分别分析年龄结构标准化下的年龄别生育率和一般生育率。结果表明:农业流动育龄妇女的年龄结构有利于提高一般生育率,农业流动妇女的生育水平显著低于非农业流动妇女;婚姻构成(如有偶率、初婚年龄)和婚内生育率(生育控制)对生育率的影响都发挥了重要作用。     

建设现代生育文化是现阶段我国稳定低生育水平的重要手段

我国的低生育水平是在经济发展水平不高的条件下取得的。要稳定我国目前的低生育率水平必须要加强现代生育文化建设。本文从实证和理论上分析了生育文化与生育率水平之间的关系,并结合我国的实际,提出了建设我国现代生育文化的对策选择。     

应用队列累计生育率分析我国生育水平变动趋势——兼与郭志刚教授讨论

本文对反映生育水平的两个基本指标——总和生育率和队列累计生育率进行分析,肯定多年来多个调查所得到的队列累计生育率的数据质量。尽管队列累计生育率反映的是"过去"而不是"当前"的实际生育水平,但历次调查所反映出的1990年代以来生育水平变化趋势是持续下降,并推断近几年的总和生育率已经下降到1.6以下。     

生育文明与我国未来生育率控制

我国的生育率变化一直以来都与生育文明的发展有着密切的关系。深厚的传统生育文化支持着我国农业社会的高生育水平,这在历史上起到过一定的积极作用,但是庞大的人口数量越来越成为我国经济社会发展的包袱。我国现阶段生育率已经在计划生育政策的控制下,达到了一个较低的标准。但是,这种低生育水平还很不稳定,也不可避免的带来了一些社会问题。随着我国经济发展和社会转型,推进生育文明的发展将成为稳定低生育水平,实现适度人口规模的最好方法。     

人口老龄化机制研究:基于生育率持续下降视角

人口老龄化现象主要通过人口转变理论解释,由于生育率下降不满足经典的人口转变理论设想,人口转变理论对人口老龄化的解释力受到挑战。从制度的角度研究社会养老制度建立以后形成的"社会养老、家庭养子"对生育率的影响,以期解释人口转变结束后生育率持续下降的原因,从生育率下降视角研究人口老龄化机制。研究发现,在"社会养老、家庭养子"制度下,养子收益减少、养子成本提高、家庭养子资源比例减少,使家庭生育率下降,生育率下降导致人口老龄化程度加深;人口老龄化程度加深提高养子成本、降低家庭养子资源比例,由于家庭缺乏养子激励,生育率进一步下降,进而导致更严重的老龄化。老龄化一旦形成,具有不断强化的机制。     

生育需求、婚姻匹配与夫妻初婚年龄差距——来自中国城乡家庭的研究

本文建立两时期婚姻搜寻模型,用以解释在性别间存在可生育年龄生理差异的基础上生育意愿对男性与女性婚姻搜寻行为以及婚姻匹配模式产生的影响。在此基础上,采用CHNS(1993)抽样调查的微观家庭数据,通过构建两个计量模型从微观和宏观两个层面来分析生育率对婚姻匹配模式的影响。首先运用CHNS微观家庭数据对家庭层面中孩子数量与夫妻年龄差距之间的联系进行实证研究,对农村家庭的回归结果显示孩子数量与夫妻的年龄差距具有显著的关系,具体而言,家庭中每多1个孩子,夫妻间的年龄差距也随之扩大0.27年。其次从宏观的角度运用Difference in Difference(DID)的方法来分析生育政策对婚姻匹配模式产生的冲击效应,实证分析计划生育政策实施后生育率的变化对我国城乡地区婚姻匹配产生的影响。实证结果显示计划生育政策实施以后生育率出现了下降,家庭的生育需求受到抑制,造成了政策实施后夫妻初婚年龄差距的下降。在生育需求受到计划生育政策影响更大的农村地区中夫妻初婚年龄差距随着生育率的快速下降出现了更为显著的缩小。研究结果表明生育需求是影响婚姻匹配模式的一个重要因素,计划生育政策实施后生育率的变化对我国城乡地区夫妻初婚年龄差距产生了显著的影响。     

Gender Equity in Theories of Fertility Transition

Recent theoretical discussion has postulated that low fertility in advanced countries is attributable to low levels of gender equity. Low gender equity is evidenced in the lack of support for women to combine paid employment and childrearing; tax‐transfer systems that remain based on the male‐breadwinner model of the family; and the retention of gender‐oriented roles within the family. Hence, it is argued that an increase in gender equity is a precondition of a rise in fertility from very low levels. At the same time, theorists argue that, in less developed countries, higher levels of gender equity are a necessary condition for achieving lower fertility. The article addresses this apparent contradiction by distinguishing two types of gender equity: gender equity in individual‐oriented institutions and gender equity in family‐oriented institutions. The argument is made that the transition from very high fertility to replacement‐level fertility has been associated with a gradual increase in gender equity primarily within the family itself. In contrast, the further movement to very low fertility is associated with a rapid shift toward high levels of gender equity in individual institutions such as education and market employment, in combination with persistent low levels of gender equity within the family and in family‐oriented institutions.     

Second Births and the Second Shift: A Research Note on Gender Equity and Fertility

In a set of propositions on fertility transition, Peter McDonald recently proposed that the decline from replacement‐level fertility to low fertility is associated with a combination of high levels of gender equity in individual‐oriented institutions, such as education and market employment, and low levels of gender equity in the family and family‐oriented institutions. Similarly, the “second shift,” or the share of domestic work performed by formally employed women, forms a critical piece of current cross‐national explanations for low fertility. Building on this scholarship, the authors explore whether there is empirical evidence at the individual level for a relationship between gender equity at home, as indicated by the division of housework among working couples with one child, and the transition to a second birth. Results, based on a sample of US couples, indicate a U‐shaped relationship between gender equity and fertility. Both the most modern and the most traditional housework arrangements are positively associated with fertility. This empirical test elaborates the family‐fertility relationship and underscores the need to incorporate family context, including gender equity, into explanations for fertility change.     

Gender equity, social institutions and the future of fertility

Sustained very low levels of fertility in advanced countries can be explained by incoherence between the levels of gender equity applying in different social institutions. In countries with very low levels of fertility, high levels of gender equity are postulated in institutions that deal with people as individuals, while low levels of gender equity apply in institutions that deal with people as members of families.     

Domestic Outsourcing in an Ultra-Low Fertility Context: Employing Live-in Domestic Help and Fertility in Hong Kong

The fertility rate in Hong Kong has been very low for decades. Because work–family conflict is one of the major barriers for married couples in actualizing their fertility ideals, domestic outsourcing that relieves women from the burden of domestic labor may help reduce the gap between ideal and actual fertility. Hiring live-in domestic helpers, who co-reside with the hiring families and work on a full-time basis, is gaining popularity in Hong Kong. However, past studies neither inside nor outside of East Asia have examined how employing live-in helpers affects fertility. This study investigates the relationship between live-in helpers and fertility by analyzing retrospective event-history data we collected from a representative survey of married couples in Hong Kong (n?=?1697). Our results show that married couples employing live-in helpers tend to have more children than couples not employing live-in helpers. Specifically, the practice is associated with higher odds of first childbirth and of second childbirth, with no evidence of a positive effect beyond bearing a second child. The findings have implications for other East Asian societies, which share similar backgrounds of ultra-low fertility rates, rising female labor force participation rates, rigid gender inequalities in domestic labor, and demanding work cultures.

     

Social Development in Hong Kong: Development Issues Identified by Social Development Index (SDI)

Surviving the aftermaths of the Asian Financial Crisis and SARS in 2003, Hong Kong’s economy has re-gained its momentum and its economic growth has been quite remarkable too in recent few years. Nevertheless, as reflected by the Social Development Index (SDI), economic growth in Hong Kong does not seem to have benefited the people of the city at large as we see social qualities such as cohesion, security, equity, and empowerment are gradually eroded. This paper aims to summarize the current state of social development in Hong Kong based on the SDI-2008 and identify the major social, political and economic challenges that are confronted by Hong Kong. Based on the findings, a range of policy options proposed for promoting a more balanced approach to social and economic development are discussed. The article illustrates the utility of social indicators research such as the SDI in assessing quality of life and assisting related social planning initiatives in Asian communities such as Hong Kong.     

Gender Equity,Religion, and Fertility in Europe and North America

Religion has historically been a pronatalist force, but because it fosters traditional gender role attitudes, its importance for fertility may wane where gender equity is thought to be emerging as the new natalism. In this study, I used World Values Survey and European Values Survey data from 1989 to 2018 to determine whether more religious Northern countries are slower to develop the widespread egalitarian gender role attitudes associated with fertility recovery. I concluded that the “old natalism” and the “new natalism” do not compete with each other as much as their negative association implies that they might. By tracing the evolution of country‐level gender equity in more‐ and less religious countries of Europe and North America, I showed how country‐level religiosity does not dampen the potential for a gender equity‐stimulated fertility recovery. This paper also contributes by showing that the curvilinear relationship between gender equity and fertility has continued into more recent time periods than covered by previous work.     

由赴港生子到生育公地悲剧的认识

赴港生子是近年来中国大陆出现的新的人口现象,且多是能领社会风习之先的富人所为,其中必具诸多预示性内涵。文章通过现象解析、模型推演,证明在存在性别偏好的条件下,孩子的数量质量替代率下降;放宽约束条件后,富人更具多生的潜能;进而对理性家庭最优生育选择必将导致的生育公地悲剧展开理论探讨;并佐以浙江省近年来人口发展资料,揭示出在目前我国人口发展新情境中,部分富人,尤其是民营企业主的生育意愿有被激活且渐行释放的迹象,经济发达地区的生育率似有持续走高之势,生育率反弹的势能似在不断增强。藉此,应该继续维持现有政策执行力,增强新型生育文化的引致力。     

Women's lives and rapid fertility decline: Some lessons from Bangladesh and Egypt

The recent experiences of Bangladesh and Egypt show thatfertility can sustain impressive declines even when women's lives remain severely constrained.Since the late 1970s, rural and urban areas in both countries have experienced steadydeclines in fertility, with recent declines in rural Bangladesh similar to those in ruralEgypt, despite lower levels of development and higher rates of poverty. This paperprovides an in-depth exploration of the demographic transition in these two societies andaddresses three basic questions: (1) have measurable improvements in economic opportunities forwomen been a factor in the fertility decline?; (2) can preexisting differences in gender systemsexplain the more rapid fertility decline in Bangladesh, despite the more modest economicachievements?; (3) can the development strategies adopted by the governments ofBangladesh and Egypt, be seen as additional factors in explaining the similar rural fertilitydeclines despite dissimilar economic circumstances? The paper concludes that neither gender systemsnor changes in women's opportunities appear to have contributed to declining fertility.Indeed, low levels of women's autonomy have posed no barrier to fertility decline in eithercountry. However, there is a case to be made that Bangladesh's distinct approach to development,with considerable emphasis on reaching the rural poor and women and a strong reliance onnongovernmental institutions, may have played a part in accelerating the transition in thatenvironment and in helping women to become more immediate beneficiaries of that process.

     

East Asian childbearing patterns and policy developments

Childbearing behavior in East Asian countries has changed rapidly during the past half century from an average of five to seven children per family, to replacement-level fertility, and subsequently to unprecedentedly low levels, the lowest in the world. This article analyzes fertility trends in Hong Kong, Japan, singapore, south Korea, and Taiwan using cohort fertility data and methods, then examines social and economic causes of the childbearing trends, and surveys policies pursued to reverse the fertility trends. Postponement of childbearing started in the 1970s with continuously fewer delayed births being "recuperated," which resulted in ultra-low fertility. A rapid expansion of education and employment among women in a patriarchal environment has generated a stark dilemma for women who would like to combine childbearing with a career. Policy responses have been slow, with a more serious attempt to address issues in recent years. Thus far public and private institutions are not devoting sufficient attention to generating broad social change supportive of parenting.     

‘Maternity migration’ and the increased sex ratio at birth in Hong Kong SAR

The sex ratio at birth (SRB) in Hong Kong SAR (Special Administrative Region) has recently increased dramatically. Using a data set (N = 850,331) of all recorded births in Hong Kong between 1995 and 2009, we calculated SRBs by parity and immigrant status. The findings indicate a strong son preference among Mainland Chinese who have travelled to Hong Kong to give birth, especially at parity two or above. Logistic regression models show that this tendency is significantly greater among more affluent couples and remains strong even among Mainland Chinese women resident in Hong Kong for any length of time. The SRB of Hong Kong-born couples, though elevated at higher parities, is less skewed. Hong Kong has been serving as an outlet for ‘elite’ Mainland couples to circumvent family planning restrictions. The analysis also suggests the advantages of a wider set of immigrant variables over a binary construct.