Assessing child care need under welfare reform

Suggestions for improvements to this research by Sherrill Friedman, Paula Brush and Subhash Sonnad are gratefully acknowledged.

With the advent of welfare reform, recipients of Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) are now required to enter the workforce. This workforce entry brings the need for child care. Two problems concerning child care emerge: poor women participating in the workforce at entry level jobs often require child care during hours when care is not readily available (Miranne & Young, 1998); and welfare reform s work requirement will necessitate a predicted ten percent increase in child care services (Maynard, 1989), while only a four percent increase in funding for child care is being mandated by the federal government (Blank, 1997). This essay explores welfare reform and its effect on child care availability by demonstrating its impact at a local level.     

SINGLE MOTHERS WORKING AT NIGHT: STANDARD WORK AND CHILD CARE SUBSIDIES

This article examines the effect of child care subsidies on the standard work decision of single mothers. Results suggest that child care subsidy receipt is associated with about a 7 percentage point increase in the probability of working at a standard job. When the effect of subsidy receipt is allowed to differ between welfare recipients and nonrecipients, results indicate that subsidy receipt has a large and positive effect among welfare recipients, whereas the effect on nonrecipients is much smaller. These findings underscore the importance of child care subsidies in helping low-income parents, especially welfare recipients, gain standard employment. ( JEL J13, I38)     

The Work of Caring for Children

Abstract

In this article I present a textual analysis of the child care policy debates that took place in the United States during the late 1980s. I identify and illustrate two themes that emerged in these debates. The first expressed a commitment to the “traditional” nuclear family and a belief in the importance of full-time motherhood for children's well-being. The second expressed a devaluation of two aspects of women's caregiving: the mother-work of welfare recipients and the work performed by child care providers. I argue that the views comprising these two themes contributed to the limitations of the federal child care legislation that was adopted in 1990.     

The Labor Market Orientation of Single Mothers on Welfare in The Netherlands

Since the implementation of the new General Assistance Act (1996) in The Netherlands, single parents on welfare have become obliged to seek work as soon as their youngest child has become 5 years old. This article presents a study of 1,049 Dutch single mothers on welfare. Using LISREL, a conceptual model is examined for the effects of both the past and current circumstances of the mothers on their labor orientation and on their steps toward a full‐time job. An individual mother's motivation to work is particularly related to the importance she attaches to caring (care ethos) as opposed to working (work ethos) and to the problems she anticipates in combining care and work.     

Family-friendly benefits and full-time working mothers’ labor force persistence

Family-friendly benefits are intended to help mothers balance rather than juggle work and family. Prior research assumes that family-friendly benefits have a similar effect on mothers’ persistence in full-time work across parity. However, there is evidence that the transitions to first-time and second-time motherhood are qualitatively, as well as quantitatively, different experiences. Using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79), we investigate women’s labor force status (full-time, part-time, and not working) after both parity transitions among women who were working in the labor force full-time prior to the birth of their first child. We find that mothers often persist in the same labor force status after the birth of their second child that they held after the birth of their first child, but there is wide variability in labor force and parity pathways. In addition, a wider array of family-friendly benefits is associated with second-time mothers’ full-time work than first-time mothers.     

‘In a bind’: Foster mothers' experiences with welfare reform

The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 has diminished government support to single mothers and further limits the options for full-time parenting, placing priority on work participation and reduction of welfare caseloads. Based upon interviews with 100 low-income foster mothers who are also Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) recipients, this study examines their experiences with these policies while they balance multiple responsibilities as caregivers for abused and neglected children from the child welfare system. The implications of TANF policies for foster mothers and policy alternatives that support diverse family structures are also discussed.     

Does child care availability play a role in maternal employment and children’s development? Evidence from Italy

This paper investigates the effects of public child care availability in Italy in mothers’ working status and children’s scholastic achievements. We use a newly available dataset containing individual standardized test scores of pupils attending the second grade of primary school in 2009–2010 in conjunction with data on public child care availability. Our estimates indicate a positive and significant effects of child care availability on both mothers’ working status and children’s Language test scores. We find that a percentage change in public child care coverage increases mothers’ probability to work by 1.3 percentage points and children’s Language test scores by 0.85 percent of one standard deviation; we do not find any effect on Math test scores. Moreover, the impact of a percentage change in public child care on mothers’ employment and children’s Language test scores is greater in provinces where child care availability is more limited.     

Treatment Approaches for Child Welfare Mothers with Addiction Problems

Abstract

This paper argues that child welfare mothers with addiction problems may require specialized treatment approaches based on their gender. The prevalence of women's problems with addiction and the unique ways addictions manifest themselves in women are discussed. The literature is then used to guide a discussion on the limitations of traditional treatment approaches that have been designed for men and may be of ill service to child welfare mothers. Alternative treatments are reviewed, and suggestions for improving treatment services to child welfare mothers with addiction problems are provided.     

Moving Towards Work

SUMMARY

The present study sought to investigate the effects of employment on low-income single black mothers and their preschool children. The sample included 90 mothers from New York City communities who were welfare recipients in 1996, and followed two years later. At follow-up, 53 of the 90 mothers were employed. The findings indicated that lower levels of depressive affect or financial strain were not predictive of entry into the work force. However, once employed, mothers reported less depressive symptoms than those not working. Attaining more education predicted better outcomes for mothers and their children, and provided more of an opportunity to be successful in the job market. For example, having more education was associated with gaining employment, exiting welfare, having stable employment, earning higher wages, and better reading abilities in children. Maternal employment was beneficial to children, as mothers who entered the work force had children who performed better in math achievement at follow-up, after controlling for maternal socioeconomic characteristics and school readiness at baseline. Implications of the findings will be discussed.     

Paid family leave: supporting work attachment among lower income mothers

ABSTRACT

Around the time of childbirth, low-income families are at particular economic risk for reasons including mothers’ relatively high levels of separation from work. Lower wage jobs typically come with minimal paid leave that can be used at childbirth. Paid Family Leave (PFL) programs provide partially subsidized wages to new parents. Quantitative research links PFL with greater post-birth work attachment among mothers, including lower wage mothers. This qualitative study sought to explore factors that facilitate – and inhibit – lower income mothers’ returns to work following childbirth and the role of PFL programs. Seventy-one percent of the 75 mothers in the study returned to work. They cited their need for income, desire for financial independence, preference for combining work and caregiving, supportive workplace practices, family help, and accessible and trustworthy child care. They described ways PFL supported employment, especially for single mothers and those with the fewest family resources. Twenty-nine percent of the mothers left work after childbirth for reasons including child care costs, a desire (or need) to remain home rather than work, low job quality, lack of job protection, and PFL program limitations. The findings suggest future research directions and pathways for service providers and others to support these families.     

A qualitative look at child care selection among rural welfare-to-work participants

The welfare reforms of 1996 changed the administration of public assistance to children and families. One of the key provisions, requiring parents to join the workforce, resulted in an expanded need for child care. Prior research demonstrates that welfare recipients, particularly in rural areas, utilize informal child care arrangements. Further, recipients in rural communities face greater challenges due to a lack of transportation, geographic spread, and less access to services. This qualitative study examined the child care selection experiences of 33 welfare recipients in six rural Northern California counties. More families selected home-based than center-based child care. During their search processes, welfare recipients utilized both formal and informal routes to locate child care providers. Parents took advantage of their connections with the social service system, but also accessed their social networks for recommendations. Rural families also reported that their choices were constrained by the available programs, transportation, and by the quality of the programs they were able to access. Given the high rate of utilization of home-based arrangements among families in welfare-to-work programs, quality of care in such programs should be improved. Recommendations for increasing quality and access, as well as supports for welfare to work participants, are discussed.     

Examining the Impact of Changes in Maternal Employment on High School Completion Among Low-Income Youth

The passage of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act and decisions about its re-authorization have resurrected interest in the impact of maternal employment on child outcomes in poor families. The emerging evidence suggests that employment stability among former welfare recipients is a key factor in making successful transitions from welfare to work. This investigation explores how changes in maternal employment in poor families relate to high school completion among at risk youths. Our findings show that a substantial number of mothers experience unstable employment patterns. This instability is positively correlated with dropout among adolescents. The paper concludes with policy implications for the next phase of welfare reform.     

Challenging implicit bias: preparing students to practice with African American families

ABSTRACT

The disparity of African American families in the foster care system is a concern in the field of child welfare services and the social work profession. African American families experience unique challenges related to discriminatory practices and implicit biases in the child welfare system and by mandated reporters. To address these inequalities, state and local agencies have implemented prevention and intervention services to support minority families. Additionally, child welfare agencies have invested in professional development training for their workers to alleviate possible intolerant practices. This article describes implicit biases and considers how they could contribute to the disparity of African American families involved in the child welfare system. Furthermore, the article presents approaches to help social work students to identify and challenge their implicit biases to support culturally sensitive practices while working with African American families. It concludes with implications for social work education.     

Child welfare clients and school satisfaction

Despite long-standing knowledge about child welfare clients' poor educational outcomes, we know less about these vulnerable young people's situation in school. This article addresses school satisfaction among upper secondary students who have been in contact with the child welfare services. These child welfare clients' school satisfaction is compared with their peers' satisfaction. The results from a survey indicated that the majority of child welfare clients were satisfied with school but that they were less satisfied with school than were their peers. The results showed that the association between school satisfaction and positive school experiences explains a large part of this difference. Among students who reported they were doing well in school, had supportive teachers and friends at school, the difference in school satisfaction between child welfare clients and others was small. Among students who did not report similar positive experiences in school, difference in school satisfaction between child welfare clients and their peers was more substantial. These results show that school can be a good place for child welfare clients, but that facilitating support from teachers, increasing opportunities for making friends at school, and working to develop the child welfare clients' academic performances are important as efforts to improve school satisfaction.     

The impact of welfare reform on the parenting role of women in rural communities

Current family policy suggests that in order to restore family values we, as a society, need to focus on reviving a child-centered household. Full-time mothering is lauded as an honorable choice that will advance this goal and ultimately strengthen traditional family values. However, current welfare policy is contrary to this notion in that mandatory welfare-to-work programs deny women receiving public assistance the choice to be full-time mothers. Based on in-depth interviews with female welfare recipients in four rural Appalachian counties, this paper evaluates the problems women face as they confront the difficult choices of being either a “good mother” or a “good recipient.” From a feminist perspective, findings suggest that welfare reform programs in rural communities have put poor women in a proverbial “catch-22” with regard to effective parenting. Although many of the women strive to be ideal mothers as defined by societal standards, they often find that they cannot carry out the role effectively because of welfare reform regulations.     

Instability in patchworks of child care when moving from welfare to work

We use longitudinal, qualitative interview data collected from 38 initially welfare‐reliant women in Cleveland, Ohio to examine the factors driving instability in child‐care arrangements when women transitioned from welfare to work. Grounded theory analysis revealed that decisions about care were circumscribed by scarce social and economic resources, women went to extraordinary lengths to patch together arrangements that typically involved multiple providers, relative care was central to patchworks of care, and patchworks of child care were often highly unstable. These complex arrangements and their instability were influenced by mothers’ desires to find the most suitable arrangements for their children within resource and job constraints, dissatisfaction with providers, difficulties accessing subsidies, and changes in provider availability. Findings suggest that policymakers must consider instability in patchworks of multiple child‐care providers as they consider alternatives for meeting low‐wage working women's and children's needs for safe, affordable, accessible, and enriching nonmaternal child care.     

Mental health outcomes among child welfare investigated children: In-home versus out-of-home care

BackgroundChild welfare has increasingly focused on alternatives to out-of-home (OOH) placement. In-home services, such as parent training, have increased and more maltreated children remain in-home. Yet, little is known about the effect on mental health of maintaining vulnerable children in-home vs placement in stable OOH care.ObjectiveTo evaluate and compare difference in mental health among children investigated by child welfare and who remained in-home vs. those who were placed in stable OOH care.Design/methodsWe examined a cohort of children (aged 1.5–18 years) from a nationally representative sample of children investigated by child welfare using the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being II (NSCAW II). We compared changes in mental health functioning over 18 months for children who remained in-home with parent training versus those placed in stable OOH care.ResultsAmong the 749 children in our sample, baseline characteristics of children who remained in-home with parent training and those placed in stable OOH care were similar. Among school-aged children placed in stable OOH care, mental health problems decreased from 26% to 13% (p = .003). This differed significantly from school-aged children who remained in home, for whom mental health problems increased (50% decrease stable OOH care vs. 23% increase in home; p = .007). Among pre-school aged children, mental health problems increased in both settings, particularly stable out-of-home care (p = .008).ConclusionsFor school aged children with a history of maltreatment, mental health outcomes improve following stable OOH placement, yet worsen when remaining in-home with parents. Pediatricians should be watchful for mental health problems among children who remain home after maltreatment and should advocate for high-quality stable OOH care when it is necessary. Child welfare may need to monitor the outcomes of children remaining at home more closely and provide more intensive preventive and treatment services to families.     

Mass-market magazine portrayals of working mothers and related issues, 1987 and 1997

In this research project a historian seeks to test whether a dichotomy in the historical analysis of working mothers also exists in recent mass-media portrayals of contemporary wage-earning mothers. The hypothesis is that only white, middle- and upper-class women who work outside the home are considered working mothers, with the emphasis placed on their role as mothers. When poor, minority, working women with children are discussed, they are considered primarily in their capacity as workers. Following from this dichotomy is a split in the assessment of day care for the children of working mothers. For the children of high socioeconomic status women, no day care facility can satisfactorily replace maternal care; for the children of low socioeconomic status women, any type of non-maternal care that enables a mother to keep functioning as a worker is considered superior to maternal care. This study is important because it clarifies some critical scholarly and popular assumptions about the importance of work, the nature of motherhood, and the needs of different classes of children. These assumptions in turn structure scholarly analysis, permeate public discourse, and ultimately shape work and child care policies that profoundly affect all of America's families. This work is intended as a brief analysis that can serve to highlight unconscious attitudes and to suggest how future studies and discussions might be restructured to avoid perpetuating a false separation of different classes of working mothers and their children.     

Fathers as ‘core business’ in child welfare practice and research: An interdisciplinary review

This literature review draws from a wide array of interdisciplinary research to argue that fathers need to be included in child welfare practice and research to the same extent as mothers. Social work and child maltreatment literature highlight that fathers are often overlooked and viewed more negatively than mothers in child welfare practice. There are noteworthy theoretical and practical reasons for this poor engagement of fathers in practice. However, advances in attachment theory and recent research findings from developmental and fathering literature indicate that fathers influence their children independently from mothers and equally strongly. Further research demonstrates that fathers and father figures can be both potential risk factors and protective factors in the lives of vulnerable children. Therefore, children are placed at increased risk if dangerous fathers are not engaged, and are also significantly disadvantaged if supportive fathers are not engaged. The review concludes with practical implications for child welfare practice and research.