The four-dimensional symptom questionnaire (4DSQ): measuring distress and other mental health problems in a working population

In non-clinical (working) populations it is important to differentiate between general distress, on the one hand, and psychiatric symptoms—depression, anxiety and somatization—on the other hand. The Four-Dimensional Symptom Questionnaire (4DSQ) is a new instrument that measures these four symptom dimensions (Terluin, ). This study aimed to investigate the psychometric properties of the 4DSQ in a working population. A postal stress and health survey was sent to all employees of a Dutch telecom company, 51% of whom responded (N=3852). The mailing included the 4DSQ, a set of questionnaires concerning job stress (e.g. psychological demands), coping style (e.g. problem-focused coping, avoidant coping), and indicators of strain (e.g. emotional exhaustion, fatigue). Cronbach's α for the four sub-scales of the 4DSQ ranged from .79 to .90. Factor analysis showed four factors corresponding to the four scales of the 4DSQ: distress, depression, anxiety, and somatization. The validity of the 4DSQ was assessed using (partial) correlations with job stress, coping, and strain. As expected, the distress scale showed the strongest correlations with the indicators of strain, as well as with job stress and coping. In conclusion, the 4DSQ is a reliable and valid instrument that can be used in a working population to distinguish between stress-related symptoms and psychiatric illness.     

Love of life and death distress: two separate factors

The objectives of the current investigation were threefold: a) to explore the gender differences on love of life (a new construct in the well-being domain) and death distress (death anxiety, death depression, and death obsession); b) to explore the relationship between the scales of these constructs; and c) to examine the factorial structure of these scales. The sample was 245 volunteer Kuwaiti college students (53.5% women). Their mean age was 21.9 (SD = 2.3). They responded to the Love of Life Scale, the Death Anxiety Scale, the Arabic Scale of Death Anxiety, the Death Depression Scale-Revised, and the Death Obsession Scale. Gender differences on love of life were not significant. However, women had significantly higher mean scores for the four death distress scales than did their male counterparts. All the correlations between love of life and the death distress scales were not significant except one pertaining to love of life and death depression (negative) in women. Two oblique factors were extracted: death distress and love of life. It was concluded that these constructs represent two distinct and independent factors. Counselors and clinicians dealing with death distress would find that it is not associated with love of life.     

Self-perceived occupational stress and distress in a Scottish police force

Abstract

This paper describes an empirical study (n = 699) of occupational stress in a Scottish police force. The self-perceived stress associated with a variety of organizational and opearational stressors was examined along with the associated distress in the police officers in terms of symptoms of anxiety, somatic complaint, severe depression and social dysfunction. The analysis revealed that in spite of the potential that police work offers for exposure to adverse opeational situations such as violence or death, the highest levels of associated stress lie in relation to organizational factors such as officers' perceptions of staff shortages, inadequate resources, time pressures, lack of communication and work overload. Differential rates of perceived stress are reported accordng to gender, rank and working location. This paper further validates previsous research on stress in British police and addresses the situation from a Scottish perspective.     

Self-perceived occupational stress and distress in a Scottish police force

This paper describes an empirical study (n = 699) of occupational stress in a Scottish police force. The self-perceived stress associated with a variety of organizational and opearational stressors was examined along with the associated distress in the police officers in terms of symptoms of anxiety, somatic complaint, severe depression and social dysfunction. The analysis revealed that in spite of the potential that police work offers for exposure to adverse opeational situations such as violence or death, the highest levels of associated stress lie in relation to organizational factors such as officers' perceptions of staff shortages, inadequate resources, time pressures, lack of communication and work overload. Differential rates of perceived stress are reported accordng to gender, rank and working location. This paper further validates previsous research on stress in British police and addresses the situation from a Scottish perspective.     

Sources of occupational stress in the police

This paper describes an empirical study (n = 954) of occupational stress conducted in a large provincial English police force. Conceptual distinctions were made between stressors, i.e., potential external sources of adverse reactions; felt stress, i.e., self-perceived negative impact; and distress, i.e., self-reported symptoms of anxiety, depression, social dysfunction, and somatic disturbance. Findings indicates that overall exposure rates are highest for organizational and management stressors rather than routine operational duties. Differential rates of exposure, felt stress, and distress are reported for different ranks of officers. The paper confirms the nature of postulated sources of police stress from earlier studies and extends analysis to differentiate between exposure to stressors and experience of distress.     

The death distress construct and scale

The purpose of this research was to construct a short scale to assess the death distress construct, that is, death anxiety, death depression, and death obsession as derivatives from the already existing scales. A sample of 630 volunteer undergraduates responded to scales of death anxiety, death depression, and death obsession. A Pearson correlation matrix was computed using the 51 individual items of the three scales. A forced three-factor principal components analysis with orthogonal varimax rotation was carried out. Eight items with factor loading > 0.5 on each scale was determined. The eight items with highest factor loadings on Factor I were with "Death obsession," whereas the Factors II and III were labeled: "Death anxiety," and "Death depression." Their alpha reliabilities ranged from 0.83 to 0.93, indicating high internal consistency. One week test retest reliability ranged between 0.76 and 0.91, indicating temporal stability. A single high-loaded factor of death distress was disclosed, demonstrating the discriminant validity of the death distress construct and scale. Women obtained a significantly higher mean scores on all three factors. It was concluded that the aforementioned three factors were sufficiently independent to justify their use in assessing partially distinct sub-constructs as sub-components of the generic high-order factor of death distress, with empirical and clinical implications.     

The Effects of Precautionary Messages about Electromagnetic Fields from Mobile Phones and Base Stations Revisited: The Role of Recipient Characteristics

Precautionary messages have been shown to increase recipients’ threat perceptions about radio‐frequency electromagnetic fields (RF‐EMFs) emitted by mobile phones and mobile phone base stations. The current study explored the interplay of variables on the side of message recipients with this effect. The individual difference variables of interest were gender, trait anxiety, personal need for structure, and personal fear of invalidity. Furthermore, the study determined whether the increased threat perception is accompanied by emotional distress. A total of 298 university students answered a survey after reading either a basic text about RF‐EMFs or a text including precautionary information. Linear multiple regression with interactions analyses showed that the effect of precautionary messages differed for people with different levels of trait anxiety. How trait anxiety was related to the effect of precautionary messages in turn depended on participants’ gender. Personal need for structure and personal fear of invalidity were mostly unrelated to the effect of precautionary messages. Regarding participants’ emotional distress, we found no difference in state anxiety scores between those participants who received precautionary information and those who did not. The findings show that the effects of precautionary messages on threat perception depend on individual difference variables such as recipients’ trait anxiety and gender. Also, the fact that precautionary communication did not result in heightened state anxiety challenges the assumption that precautionary messages induce fear or anxiety.     

结构式团体在临床护士心理压力调解中的应用

目的探讨应用结构式团体在临床护士心理压力调解中的改善效果。方法选择临床护士60例,均为2020年06月~2020年12月间我院在册在岗内科病区护士,依据护士入科先后顺序采取分组,即前期入科护理人员30例采取自我调节方式应用心理压力,观察组为后期入科护理人员30例,采取结构式团体干预模式进行心理压力调节,对比护士不同调节方式下,情绪分值变化及对自我职业的倦怠评分、心理健康状态评分,并采取科室设计的满意度问卷展开评估。结果由自评量表结果所示,观察组护理人员在干预前焦虑、抑郁分值均无明显变化(P>0.05),干预后观察组护理人员焦虑、抑郁分值有所下降,与对照组呈鲜明对比(P<0.05)。职业倦怠量表测评结果所示,观察组护理人员情绪衰竭、工作态度、个人成就感三个维度的分值均低于对照组,差异显著(P<0.05)。由科室自我设计满意度问卷所示,观察组对自我工作满意度较高,与对照组比值差异明显(P<0.05)。两组在SCL-90量表测评下,观察组护理人员各项指标得分低于对照组(P<0.05)。结论结构式团体在临床护士心理压力的调解中的应用效果值得肯定,可改善职业倦怠感,提高工作效率。     

A pilot study of the contribution of empathy to burnout in Salvation Army Officers

Although empathy has been found to distinguish effective counsellors from less effective counsellors, human services professionals who continually experience negative emotional reactions to the feelings that clients express in counselling may be at risk of developing burnout. This study examined the hypothesis that emotional empathy rather than cognitive empathy is associated with burnout. The sample of human services professionals consisted of 71 Salvation Army Officers. Multiple regression was used to investigate whether the dimensions of empathy could predict three aspects of burnout: personal accomplishment, emotional exhaustion and depersonalization. The first regression analysis indicated that personal distress and empathic concern were significant predictor of personal accomplishment. The second analysis indicated that personal distress was a significant predictor of emotional exhaustion. The third indicated that empathic concern was a significant predictor of depersonalization. Although these results support the hypothesis, personal distress was negatively associated with personal accomplishment, whereas empathic concern was positively associated with personal accomplishment. The small size of the sample may have influenced the reliability of the findings. A multidimensional approach to the role of empathy in counselling may help human services professionals to manage their emotional reactions when they engage in counselling with distressed clients.     

The impact of negative affectivity on stressor-strain relations: A replication and extension

The present study was a replication and extension of the results of Brief et al. (1988), who found that partialling out negative affectivity reduced the magnitude of stressor-strain correlations considerably. The effect of both trait anxiety and dispositional optimism was partialled out from stressor-strain correlations. Unlike Brief et al. (1988), however, work stress was measured with specific stressor scales rather than life events. Results from two samples of university employees showed that partialling out trait anxiety, dispositional optimism, or both, reduced the magnitude of stressor-strain correlations very little. Thus, it does not appear that stressor-strain correlations can be attributed to negative affectivity. The possibility that the results of the study by Brief et al. (1988) may have been due to problems with the life events approach used to measure work stress is discussed. Future research on the impact of dispositions is suggested.     

Depression and coping mechanisms in prisoners

In an attempt to identify the number, nature, and effectiveness of coping mechanisms used by long-term prisoners to cope with stress, a sample of inmates was administered scales measuring depression, coping strategies, and sensation-seeking. It was found that the prisoners' depression scores were very high, placing several inmates into the category of severe clinical depression. However, the number of coping mechanisms used by prisoners to deal with a stressful situation was not reflected by the depression scores. Extensive use of coping mechanisms was, if anything, associated with an increased level of depression. The expected relationship between sensation-seeking and proneness to depression in prison failed to emerge.     

Work, pregnancy, and distress

Increasing numbers of pregnant women are working throughout much, if not all, of their pregnancies. In this secondary analysis of existing longitudinal data on family health, pregnant women were grouped according to employment status: 126 homemakers, 70 employed part-time, and 135 employed full-time. There were no significant differences between the groups in measures of distress, including depression, trait and state anxiety, and perception of negative life events. Homemakers were significantly younger, less educated, and had lower family incomes than either group of employed women. There was also a non-significant trend towards higher distress scores among homemakers. Overall, among these women, it was the similarities which were more striking than the differences, which supports recent research findings about distress among pregnant women.     

Psychologically and biochemically assessed stress in a follow-up study of long-term unemployed

It has been suggested that psychological stress is one of the reasons for the high morbidity among unemployed people in Western countries. The same may apply to the well-documented high mortality. It would be expected that increased levels of biological stress would be found in these people. In the present study a sample of 310 long-term unemployed people from Norway was followed for 2 years. Psychologcal stress was assessed by medical examination and by the psychometric tests GHQ-28 and HSCL-30, the latter compared with a reference population of employed people. Serum levels of cortisol, prolactin and testosterone, together with immunoglobulins IgA, IgG and IgM, were compared with working controls. The unemployed had a high level of psychological distress at the first examination, the sanie for men and women. At the 2-year follow up distress was reduced by re-employment. This fits the 'causation hypothesis' which explains the high distress level as caused by unemployment. The other direction of causation, 'the selection hypothesis', assuming that distressed persons have an increased chance of continuous unemployment, was also confirmed in the present study. As for biological stress, significant differences were not found between the unemployment, the re-employed and the working controls.     

Psychological stress-factors and concentration of immunoglobulins and complement components in Norwegian nurses

Psychological stress produces immunological changes in animals, and increasing evidence suggests that this may also be true for humans. In the present study of 34 nurses in a busy ward of a Norwegian hospital, significant relationships have been demonstrated between die plasma levels of immunoglobulins and complement components and work-related 'stress', anxiety, and cognitive defence strategies. The main components of die work-related stress experience were role-stress and nonparticipation in decision-making.

The results indicate chat immunological parameters may perhaps be used as a psychological stress indicator, but the relationships are complex and can best be understood if individual coping and defence mechanisms are considered. Health symptoms were also examined, but these were not related to stress experience or immunological measures.     

Psychologically and biochemically assessed stress in a follow-up study of long-term unemployed

Abstract

It has been suggested that psychological stress is one of the reasons for the high morbidity among unemployed people in Western countries. The same may apply to the well-documented high mortality. It would be expected that increased levels of biological stress would be found in these people. In the present study a sample of 310 long-term unemployed people from Norway was followed for 2 years. Psychologcal stress was assessed by medical examination and by the psychometric tests GHQ-28 and HSCL-30, the latter compared with a reference population of employed people. Serum levels of cortisol, prolactin and testosterone, together with immunoglobulins IgA, IgG and IgM, were compared with working controls. The unemployed had a high level of psychological distress at the first examination, the sanie for men and women. At the 2-year follow up distress was reduced by re-employment. This fits the ‘causation hypothesis' which explains the high distress level as caused by unemployment. The other direction of causation, ‘the selection hypothesis', assuming that distressed persons have an increased chance of continuous unemployment, was also confirmed in the present study. As for biological stress, significant differences were not found between the unemployment, the re-employed and the working controls.     

Attachment, social support, and responses following the death of a companion animal

This research tested hypotheses concerning attachment, social support, and grief responses to the loss of animal companionship. Participants whose companion cat or dog had recently died (N = 429) completed the Attachment Style Questionnaire, the Inventory of Complicated Grief, and the Multidimensional Health Profile-Psychosocial Functioning questionnaires. Both attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance were found to be positively associated with respondents' grief, depression, anxiety, and somatic symptoms. Social support was found to be negatively associated with these outcomes as well as with attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance. In multiple regression analyses, attachment anxiety incrementally predicted grief, anxiety and somatic symptoms, attachment avoidance incrementally predicted grief and depression, and social support incrementally predicted all outcomes. Interaction effects of attachment and social support in relation to outcomes were not found. The present study's implications and limitations are discussed, as are directions for future research.     

Personality factors predicting changes in shift work tolerance: A longitudinal study among nurses working rotating shifts

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationship between personality factors (hardiness, morningness, flexibility, and languidity) and longitudinal changes on different measures of shift work tolerance (fatigue, sleepiness, anxiety and depression) over one year among nurses working rotating shifts. A total of 642 female Norwegian nurses working in a rotating three-shift schedule participated in the study. The cohort was established by age-stratified selection among members of the Norwegian Nurses Association in 2008. Questionnaires were administered in 2008/2009 (T1) and in 2009/2010 (T2). The results showed that hardiness was negatively related to fatigue, anxiety and depression at T2 when controlling for the scores on these constructs at T1. Morningness was not related to any indicators of shift work tolerance at T2 when controlling for shift work tolerance at T1. Flexibility was negatively related to anxiety at T2 when controlling for anxiety at T1. Languidity was positively related to sleepiness and fatigue at T2 when controlling for sleepiness and fatigue at T1. The findings indicate that personality factors, especially hardiness, can predict changes related to shift work tolerance over a period of one year.     

The social construction of the meaning of acute stressors: a qualitative study of the personal accounts of police officers using a stress counselling service

The police profession is one in which acute stressors are encountered more frequently than in other occupations. Using the personal accounts of 35 police officers attending an in-house stress counselling clinic, the aim of the present study was to provide a qualitative examination of how the institutional context of policing influenced the ways in which acute stressors signified to individual police officers experiencing felt distress. Using the framework of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy as an analytical tool, it is argued that beliefs contributing to the experience of felt distress are related to the way in which policing as both an identity and an activity is constructed through the police organizational culture. Not only do these constructions influence the ways in which officers perceive themselves and their environments, but they also operate at the collective level to 'normalize' some emotional responses and to 'pathologize' others which, it is argued, could impact upon the outcomes of interventions such as stress counselling.     

Health, well-being and burnout of ICU nurses on 12- and 8-h shifts

It is generally agreed that some features of shift systems can influence the extent of well-being and health problems experienced by the workers involved. Extended working days (9-12 h) have been found to aggravate some problems associated with shiftwork, especially when the work is mentally and emotionally demanding. The aim of the study was to compare measures of health, sleep, psychological and social well-being, job satisfaction and burnout of ICU nurses on 12- and 8-h shifts. The groups of subjects were matced for age, length of shiftwork experience, marital status and number of hours worked. the 12-h shift nurses, when compared to their 8-h shift colleagues, experienced more chronic fatigue, cognitive anxiety, sleep disturbance and emotional exhaustion. Job satisfaction seems to be independent of the shift duration. The nurses on 12-h shifts reported less social and domestic disruption than those on 8-h shifts. The 12-h shift nurses showed worse indices of health, well-being and burnout tan the 8-h shift nurses. It is suggested that this may be associated with their longer daily exposure to the stress of work. The increased number of rest days of 12-h shift nurses seems tobe insufficient to dissipate the adverse health and well-being effects that built up over their longer shifts.     

Coping resources,coping strategies and adjustment to organizational change: Direct or buffering effects?

Abstract

This study examined the effects of personal and social resources, coping strategies and appraised stress on employees' levels of anxiety and depression. In relation to the effects of resources and coping strategies, two different models were tested. The main effects model proposes that, irrespective of the level of stress, coping resources and coping strategies have direct effects on well-being. In contrast, the buffering model predicts that the buffering effects of coping resources ad strategies are only evident at high levels of stress. One hundred lawyers completed a structured self-administered questionnaire that measured their personal and social resources, use of problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies, and appraisals of the stressfulness of the situation. Results revealed generally strong support for the main effects model in the prediction of employee levels of anxiety and depression. Lower levels of anxiety were linked to judgements of lower levels of organizational change, greater self-confidence, greater internality of control beliefs and less use of emotion-focused coping strategies. Lower levels of depression in employees were also linked to judgements of lower levels of organizational change, greater use of resources and less appraised stress. There was only limited support for the buffering effects model. Due to the small size of the sample, the findings need to be explored further in other contexts.