The Rise of Kenyan Supermarkets and the Evolution of their Horticulture Product Procurement Systems

Supermarkets are rapidly penetrating urban food retail in Kenya and spreading well beyond their initially tiny market niche among the urban middle class into the food markets of lower‐income groups. Having penetrated processed and staple food markets much earlier and faster than fresh foods, they have recently begun to make inroads into the fresh fruits and vegetables category. Supermarkets in Kenya already buy about half the volume of produce exported, and thus represent a significant new ‘dynamic market’ opportunity for farmers. The important changes in their procurement systems bring significant opportunities and challenges for small farmers, and have implications for agricultural diversification and rural development programmes and policies.     

Agricultural education: Gender identity and knowledge exchange

Women farmers are underserved in agricultural education and technical assistance. Long held social constructions of farming women as ‘farmwives’ and in some cases ‘the bookkeepers’ rather than farmers or decision-makers influence the direction of most educational programming delivered through extension programs in land-grant universities in the United States. Consequently, many women farmers generally view these spaces as hostile, rather than helpful environments. This paper uses the agricultural training framework developed by Liepins and Schick (1998) to analyze our research on developing educational programming for women farmers. We conducted five focus groups with members of the Pennsylvania Women's Agricultural Network (PA-WAgN) to better understand women farmers’ needs for education. Women farmers reported the kinds of knowledge and information they want, in what kinds of contexts, and through what means of communication. We adapt and extend the original theoretical framework developed by Liepins and Schick to incorporate the seriality of women's identities, their discourses of embodiment and the agency granted to them through social networks. Through a presentation of the results of these focus groups, we discuss both the relevance of gender to agricultural education and the importance of the network model in providing education to women farmers.     

Entrepreneurs and producers: Identities of Finnish farmers in 2001 and 2006

The farmers' role within the EU has recently been under reconstruction: in addition to primary agricultural production farmers should fulfil multiple functions such as maintaining the rural landscape, conserving nature and providing services. One essential feature of this new role is the demand for entrepreneurship. Farmers should be capable of competing in the worldwide, global agricultural market. They are also encouraged to diversify into business activities beyond agriculture. How do farmers see themselves in this situation? Is their self-perception compatible with this new reconstruction of the farming economy and the farmers' role? Research, thus far, seems to indicate that traditional or production oriented identities are still dominant among farmers. But there is also some evidence that new identities, such as the entrepreneurial identity, are emerging. In our study we are especially interested in how Finnish farmers have met the demand for adapting to the role of an entrepreneur. We approach the issue of the farmers' changing role from a social psychological perspective by utilizing the concept of identity. Our empirical evidence comes from two nation-wide postal questionnaire data sets, both containing samples from three subgroups: conventional farmers focusing solely on primary agricultural production, diversified farmers who also had other business besides agricultural production, and rural non-agricultural small-scale businesses. The results show that Finnish farmers do not experience “entrepreneur” as something distant from themselves and as not fitting in with their world of ideas, as the work of some researchers would depict. Instead, the majority of Finnish farmers, especially diversified farmers, conceive of themselves both as entrepreneurs and as producers.     

Inducing Development: Social Remittances and the Expansion of Oil Palm

This paper investigates the relationship between social remittances and land‐use change in the context of South–South migration. Focusing on the cyclical movement of Filipino oil palm workers between the Philippine province of Palawan and the Malaysian State of Sabah, we show how migrants transmit social remittances, such as ideas of prosperity associated with oil palm development and knowledge of production practices and land impacts of oil palm plantations. These social remittances affect farmers’ decisions to engage in oil palm development within the migrants’ home province, possibly transforming subsistence agricultural systems into large‐scale, monocrop plantations. We argue that such land development outcomes are an understudied aspect of how migration affects developing countries, especially in the context of South–South migration. Research findings also suggest how migrants’ social remittances are transmitted, diffused, and utilized at broader social and political units, beyond return migrants’ households and immediate communities in Palawan. Decision outcomes, however, are variable, with households and communities either engaging in or opposing oil palm development, depending on how social remittances are interpreted.     

Long-term Cereal Price Changes: How Important is the Speculative Element?

The objective of this article is to provide an analysis of the relationship existing between cereal prices and several variables (population, income, exports, the exchange rate, and speculation), by using a linear regression analysis. Specific emphasis is placed on the speculative dimension. Our results show that speculation has played a crucial role during the period June 2001–December 2009. Exports, in some ways connected to the former variable, occupy second place, in terms of significance. However, their impact on cereal prices is less relevant than that of biofuel production. Population growth acts in the opposite direction due to the change in diets, implying that population increases would tend to affect primarily other agricultural markets. Excessive volatility in food prices is a dramatic question. From a demand point of view, consumers in developing countries and vulnerable income groups in other countries (farmers) have to be protected. More than one policy has to be introduced.     

Agricultural income in less favoured areas of the EC: A regional approach

In this article the agricultural income situation in the less favoured areas (LFA) of EUR 12 in the years 1987–1988, 1988–1989 and 1989–1990 is examined by using an agricultural typology of EC regions. This typology is based on the relationship of regional gross domestic product per inhabitant and farm net value added per annual work unit. In this typology, three main geographical areas can be distinguished: Northwest, Central and South. Within each main geographical area farm income in LFA is below that in normal areas. Quite large differences in the income gap between normal areas and LFA exist: in Northwest and Central the income gap is larger than in South. Moreover, the level of farm income in Northwest and Central is considerably above that in South. Within each main geographical area, farmers in LFA receive a higher amount of direct income subsidies than farmers in normal areas; the difference in South is small and in Northwest rather large. A considerable number of LFA are located in the area of regional and agricultural backwardness.     

Embeddedness and local food systems: notes on two types of direct agricultural market

Direct agricultural markets, predicated on face-to-face ties between producers and consumers, are often seen as central components of local food systems. Activists and academic analysts often assume that trust and social connection characterize direct agricultural markets, distinguishing local food systems from the “global food system”. This article examines that premise about direct agricultural markets, using the concept of social embeddedness from economic sociology to analyze the interplay of the economic and the social. Specifically, it draws on Block's (1990) elaboration of the concepts of marketness and instrumentalism to qualify the concept of social embeddedness. Taken together, and augmented by consideration of how they relate to power and privilege, these concepts provide an analytical framework that more accurately describes the social relations of two types of direct agricultural markets — the farmers’ market and community supported agriculture. In providing an alternative market, farmers’ markets create a context for closer social ties between farmers and consumers, but remain fundamentally rooted in commodity relations. In attempting to construct an alternative to the market, as reflected in an explicit emphasis on community and in the distinctive “share” relationship, community supported agriculture moves closer towards the decommodification of food. Nonetheless, in both types of direct markets, tensions between embeddedness, on the one hand, and marketness and instrumentalism, on the other, suggest how power and privilege may sometimes rest more with educated, middle-class consumers than with farmers or less-advantaged consumers. Recognizing how marketness and instrumentalism complicate social embeddedness is critical for understanding the viability, development and prospects of local food systems.     

Regulating Land Development: Local Market Structures and Structured Markets

Current rounds of economic restructuring together with the changing priorities accorded to agricultural production are leading to significant shifts in rural property and tenure relations. This paper analyzes these processes with reference to rural Britain; it reports on empirical evidence collected in the county of Buckinghamshire in southeast England. Two significant types of new rural land development are considered—small-scale industrial units arising out of the conversion of agricultural buildings and golf course developments and their ancillary leisure-based activities. Post-war productionist forms of regulation and particularly established types of agricultural tenure are now being modified by farmers and nonagricultural interests committed to the development of rural land. New demands and market structures are requiring more diversity and flexibility by which land is owned, occupied, and used. These emergent, more flexible macro tenures are based on new sets of social and political alliances between farmers, developers, and local planning systems. Agricultural land is increasingly being viewed as a capital rather than as a productive asset associated with more volatile and regionally defined markets whose regulation is formative.     

节气

The 24 solar terms,based on the sun's position in the zodiac,were created by farmers in ancient China to guide agricultural affairs and farming activities.The 24 solar terms reflect the changes in climate,natural phenomena,agricultural production and other aspects of human life,including fo o d,clothing,housing and transportation.Nowadays,many Chinese,including farmers,still use the terms as guides to help them arrange their daily activities.In November 2016,the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization(UNESCO)added China's 24 solar terms to the list of its items of intangible cultural heritage.     

The relationship between bankers and farmers: An analysis of Britain and Ireland

The financial sector is playing a more central role in agriculture. This article analyzes the external provision of finance for farmers in Britain and the Irish Republic, drawing principally on interviews with bankers and specialist providers of agricultural finance. The development of farm credit institutions in the two countries and their subsequent commercialization is discussed. Agriculture is commercially attractive to lenders as part of a balanced portfolio because of its stable, low risk character. Credit selectivity is confirmed as a feature of lender behaviour, although its consequences are likely to be more far reaching in Ireland. Lenders' perceptions of the financial sophistication of farmers is assessed, the more financially sophisticated farmer being more receptive to the logic of the financial sector and hence a more attractive customer. An emphasis on tax avoidance can lead farmers into irrational borrowing decisions. Larger farmers are better placed to take advantage of lending opportunities and new financial instruments.     

Walking in the shoes of others: Experimental testing of dual-interest and empathy in environmental choice

This paper further tests dual interest theory and the metaeconomics approach to environmental choice, recognizing a possible role for empathy–sympathy (the basis for an internalized, shared other-interest) in tempering and conditioning the more fundamental tendency to pursue self-interest. To test, we focus on rivers flowing through agricultural areas carrying sediments, chemicals, and fertilizers which are making their way into downstream rivers and lakes. We conduct a framed laboratory experiment modeling this problem: farmers decide on the usage of conservation technology to lessen impacts on the water quality (i.e. on the commons, the capacity to absorb these wastes) in downstream areas, which is more costly than the alternative intensive technology. The results confirm our hypotheses, demonstrating that Upstream Farmers who practice conservation are tempering profit maximization with empathy-based, environmentally conscious behavior. Such behavior better serves the farmers’ own-interest, and also helps Downstream Water Users. Environmental economics models need to explicitly include empathy–sympathy and the moral–ethical context it produces, providing a more scientific basis for conservation policy and programs.     

Critical indicators for assessing the contribution of infrastructure projects to coordinated urban-rural development in China

It is widely recognized that the coordinated development between urban and rural areas can not only narrow gaps in infrastructure between urban and rural areas, promote balanced development in rural areas in terms of society, economy and environment, but is also an effective way to address issues facing agriculture, rural areas and farmers. In line with this, development of infrastructure projects has been an important means for promoting coordinated urban-rural development in developing countries (such as China). However, there is a lack of indicators that can be used to assess the contribution of infrastructure projects to coordinated urban-rural development. This paper thus attempts to present a set of critical indicators for evaluating the contribution of infrastructure projects to coordinated urban-rural development in the particular context of Chongqing, Western China.First, a list of optional indicators that are with potential for assessing the contribution of infrastructure projects to coordinated urban-rural development is presented based on examination on related project feasibility reports, official reports and literature. Then 42 indicators are identified from the optional list through a questionnaire survey. By using the data collected, the relative level of significance of each indicator is derived. Finally, an indicator system consisting of 19 critical indicators is established based on results of principle component analysis. The applicability and significance of the identified indicators for assessing the contribution of infrastructure projects to coordinated urban-rural development are discussed as well.     

Privatising agricultural extension: caveat emptor

Improvement in agricultural systems requires good information and sound advice. This has often been provided to farmers through public extension systems. The paper describes some of the forces that require a reduced role for the public sector in agricultural extension and greater reliance on the private sector. Some experiences of privatisation and commercialisation of extension, as well as the caveats these suggest, are highlighted. A role for the state in agricultural extension will continue to be important in many countries for both economic and social reasons. Where forms of privatisation are useful, this will require tested strategies that are situation specific, multi-dimensional, gradual and flexible if resource-poorer farmers are to benefit.     

FOOD PRICES,WAGES, AND WELFARE IN RURAL INDIA

With soaring food prices in recent years has come alarm about rising poverty in the developing world. Less appreciated, however, is that many of the poor in agricultural economies may benefit from higher wages. This study finds that wages for manual labor in rural India, both within and outside agriculture, rose faster in districts growing more of those crops with large producer price run‐ups over the 2004–2009 period. Based on a general equilibrium framework that accounts for such wage gains, rural households across the income spectrum are found, contrary to more conventional welfare analysis, to benefit from higher agricultural prices. (JEL Q17, Q18, F14)     

China's "tidal wave" of migrant labor: what can we learn from Mexican undocumented migration to the United States?

"The purpose of this article is to place Chinese labor migration from agriculture within the context of the literature on labor mobility in developing countries by comparing it to undocumented Mexican migration to the United States. The similarities fall within three general areas: the migration process, the economic and social position of migrants at their destination, and the agrarian structure and process of agricultural development that has perpetuated circular migration. The last section of the article draws upon these similarities, as well as differences between the two countries, to generate predictions concerning the development of labor migration in China."     

Injecting social psychology theory into conceptualisations of agricultural agency: Towards a post-productivist farmer self-identity?

Macro-scale changes to Western agricultural regimes have led to recent debates on the theoretical conceptualisation of agricultural change, particularly regarding the appropriateness of the productivist/post-productivist/multifunctionality (P/PP/MF) model. Within these debates concern has recently arisen as to whether the contemporary perspective, which derives largely from macro-level structural analyses (such as political economy), is compatible with the grassroots ‘agency’ perspective—i.e. whether our conceptualisations of agricultural change follow the Giddensian notion of structure/agency consistency. In this paper we contribute to this debate by investigating the extent to which farmers’ self-concepts and attitudes towards post-productivist approaches are compatible with the current structural changes in agriculture. By introducing the notion from social psychology of a complex self-structure comprised of multiple and hierarchically organised identities, and by investigating the structure of these identities in farmers’ idealised P/PP/MF selves, the study questions the idea that any transformation from productivism to post-productivism/multifunctionality will be in the form of a simple linear transition. Results from a survey of farmers in Bedfordshire (UK) and evidence from other studies throughout Europe and Western agricultural regimes demonstrate that—despite much talk of an increasing ‘conservationist’ component to farming—farmers’ self-concepts are still dominated by production-oriented identities. The study concludes that there is a temporal discordance between the macro- and micro-structural elements of transition implied in the P/PP/MF model, and that we are witnessing at most a partial macro-structural driven transition towards a post-productivist agricultural regime.     

Farm Work Satisfaction and Acceptance of Sustainability Goals by Australian Organic and Conventional Farmers1

Abstract Farmer dependence on large-scale organizations for inputs to production is an attribute of Australian agriculture and has changed the character of farm work and how farmers see the future of agriculture. We discuss how these changes are related to farmer satisfaction with their work and their commitment to an alternative or conventional agricultural paradigm. Organic and conventional farmers are compared and findings show that organic farmers experience higher levels of work satisfaction and endorse the alternative agricultural paradigm more strongly than conventional growers. Personal success in using organic methods explains differences between organic farmers in their work satisfaction and commitments to the alternative paradigm. Similarly, conventional farmers confident about the future of their farms are satisfied with their work and express some commitment to the sustainability paradigm. Organic and conventional farmers share concerns about environmental sustainability, but are thinking differently about what sustainable farming is and how it will affect the future of Australian agriculture.     

Farming and environmental discourses: A study of the depiction of environmental issues in a German farming newspaper

Maintaining the natural environment is increasingly seen as an essential aspect of agriculture in Europe, and conservation is promoted as an element of the farmer's role. It is therefore important to understand how farmers are reacting to this. In this study, the discourses relating to environmental issues used in a regional German farming newspaper are examined. The aim was to consider the arguments to which individual farmers are exposed when they read the newspaper and at the same time to examine the discourses used by the farming union in their promotion of farmers' interests. It was found that there were many interwoven arguments, which included traditional agricultural discourses as well as the newer environmental ones. It was clear that different aspects of agricultural and environmental issues were highlighted where they appeared to be beneficial to farmers' interests. Furthermore, it was found that in the promotion of the use of renewable resources, which was portrayed as being in the interest of farmers, the discourses used contrasted with those being used to defend farmers from accusations of environmental neglect or damage.     

Beyond the Farmgate: Factors Related to Agricultural Performance in Two Dairy Communities1

Abstract This study compares the logic of agricultural production across two dairy farming communities in the Northeast using a measure of agricultural performance as the dependent variable. Both communities have similar farm structural and environmental characteristics, but significantly different levels of agricultural performance. Our analysis indicates that dairy farmers in both communities are following the same basic path toward the optimization of milk production, but achieving quite different results. A comparison of structural factors shows that the high-production community is in a more advantageous position than the low-production community in terms of opportunities for formal education, access to markets, and proximity to an urban center. Acknowledgment of structural differences across agricultural communities is crucial to the development of adequate sociological theory, agricultural policy, and extension programming.     

关于发展家庭农场的对策研究

家庭农场与种养大户、农民合作社、农业产业化龙头企业都是农业经营主体,但这些经营主体功能不同、各有优势,它们是互补关系,而非取代关系。上海市松江区和吉林省延边州的家庭农场在我国具有典型意义。松江区、延边州为了避免在工业化、城镇化快速推进过程中,可能出现农业被边缘化、农地粗放经营等问题,探索发展了家庭农场。目前,各地发展家庭农场的积极性很高,但认识上还存在一些误区,这些认识如得不到及时澄清,可能使家庭农场培育偏离健康发展的轨道。