Minority status and schooling—John U. Ogbu’s theory and the schooling of ethnic minorities in Europe

This paper discusses the relevance of John U. Ogbu’s cultural‐ecological theory regarding the variability in educational performance of different ethnic minority groups against the background of comparative data on the schooling of ethnic minorities in Europe. Aside from cultural differences and institutional barriers, it addresses the impact of minority group status and community forces on educational achievement. The author calls for more comparative ethnographic research in European countries in order to generate a better understanding of the similarities and differences in educational experiences between various ethnic groups.     

A clash of civilizations? Examining liberal‐democratic values in Turkey and the European Union1

Turkey's proposed entry into the European Union (EU) has been undermined by Europeans’ perceptions of Turkish–European cultural differences, particularly regarding the liberal‐democratic values that the EU promotes (democracy, rule of law, and respect for and appreciation of minority/human rights). Yet, cross‐national research on values has not focused on Turkey, the EU, and these liberal‐democratic values, leaving assumptions of cultural differences and their explanations untested. Through analyses of World and European Values Survey data (1999–2002), this article asks whether people in Turkey have the same values regarding democracy, rule of law (versus religious and authoritarian rule), and minority/human rights as people in EU member and candidate states (as of 2000)? What factors explain these values? I find that people in Turkey support democracy to the same extent as people in EU member and candidate states, but people in Turkey are more supportive of religious and authoritarian rule and are less tolerant of minorities. Although the ‘clash of civilizations’ thesis expects liberal values to be ordered according to countries’ religious traditions, with western Christian the most supportive and Islamic the least, only for tolerance of minorities values is this pattern found. Instead, economic development most consistently explains differences between Turkey and EU member and candidate states in support for these values. I conclude with calls for theoretical refinement, particularly of the clash of civilizations thesis, along with suggestions for future research to examine more Muslim and Orthodox countries; I discuss the debate over Turkey's EU entry.     

A comparison of the Korean minorities in China and Japan

"This article compares the Korean minorities in China and Japan in their differential levels of cultural autonomy and ethnic identity....In explaining the differential levels of ethnicity between the two Korean minority groups, this paper focuses on the basic differences in minority policy between the two countries; the difference in the context of migration; the existence or absence of a territorial base; and the differential levels of influence from Korea."     

Attainment gap and responsible factors: a quantitative study in secondary schools in Cyprus

The population in Cyprus, a recent European Union member, has become much more heterogeneous during the past decade. Here, we examine the attainment patterns of minority and native students enrolled in six secondary schools from different cities in Cyprus, and identify factors responsible for these patterns. The combination of examined factors has not, to our knowledge, taken place in previous studies. Findings confirm that ethnic minority groups perform significantly lower than native students. In terms of aetiology, we show that ethnic background, gender, parental education, parental occupation, generation status, absenteeism and school minority concentration have a significant effect on student attainment.     

The State of Research in Latino Academic Attainment

In this essay, I present an interdisciplinary examination of the state of research in Latino education, addressing not only the cultural forces influencing Latinos’ educational attainment, but also the structural conditions faced by them—as a racialized minority group—throughout their schooling and that have a cumulative effect on their academic attainment. Overall, I suggest that by engaging in a critical review of the literature on Latinos’ educational attainment, the reader will acknowledge that the racially driven hierarchical structural arrangements are highly responsible for the patterns observed.     

Inter-ethnic friendship and negative ties in secondary school

This paper investigates several different aspects of inter-ethnic relationships. It focuses on friendships and negative ties between secondary school students from different ethnic backgrounds, introducing and measuring two different aspects of ethnicity: self-declared ethnicity, and ethnicity based on peer perception. These are first applied separately and then together on a sample of secondary school students in Hungary consisting of two ethnic groups: Roma and non-Roma Hungarian (N = 420). Friendships and negative ties are modelled using cross-sectional exponential random graph models for sixteen classrooms separately, and then individual models are summarized using meta-analysis. Based on the social identity approach, we predict that inter-ethnic friendships are less likely, and negative ties are more likely, than those within ethnic groups; and that majority students reject their minority peers more than the other way around. Moreover, minority students are expected to exclude those whom they perceive as minorities, but who, at the same time, identify with the majority group, since these classmates might seem to them as “traitors” of their “original” ethnic group. Results mostly confirm our hypotheses, emphasizing the role of perceived ethnicity: majority students tend to dislike peers whom they perceive as minorities, regardless of these peers’ self-declared ethnicity; on the other hand, minority students are likely to send friendship nominations towards their perceived minority classmates if these also declare themselves as minorities, but, as predicted, negative nominations if these declare themselves as majorities. This supports our general idea that different ethnicity aspects might influence friendships and negative ties in different ways, and inconsistencies in someone's ethnic categorization might play an important role in social rejection.     

The roles of family,neighborhood, and school contextual factors on social work minority students’ educational aspirations and integration

This study examined the significance of three macro social determinants (i.e., family, neighborhood, and school factors) on the educational aspirations and integration of social work minority undergraduate students using a qualitative study of 40 interviews. Two research questions were raised: (1) how did family, neighborhood, and school contextual factors account for the participants’ postsecondary education in social work, a study that places more emphasis on the attainment of humanitarian goals over future economic outlook? and (2) what roles did family, neighborhood, and school play in shaping these participants’ postsecondary educational aspirations and integration? Overall, educationally resilient participants received strong family support but also encountered social roadblocks, stigmatization, and racial discrimination in the mainstream culture. Ironically, these social challenges also served as the major driving forces that inspired them to pursue their postsecondary education and major in social work. The findings of this study urge the general public and higher educational settings to develop more cultural sensitivity, validate unique contribution, and promote equality of cultural diversity among minority social work students.     

What's in a Name? Causes and Consequences of Labelling Minorities as “National” or “Migrant”: Roma in Italy and Spain

This article analyses how Roma are represented in official policy narratives in Italy and Spain by comparing the four cycles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities in the two countries. By tracing the representations that the Italian and Spanish governments hold (and make) about the Roma, I sketch out the different categories that EU‐ropean countries recur to as organizing principles to “other” underprivileged minorities. Based on the tailored‐approaches in which both Italy and Spain engage in framing Roma as either a “national” minority or not, I suggest that constructing or “producing” a minority in our imagined communities as characterized by national, cultural, social or migrant characteristics relies more on political expediency than on objective analytical categories.     

A Search to Merge

This paper describes and discusses bilingual education and educational policies in Latvian primary education, especially with respect to the education of ethnic minorities. I assess whether the educational opportunities provided in the Latvian government's proposed models might support the integration of minorities into Latvian society. Furthermore, recommendations are given that relate to minority education in the future.     

少数民族高等教育机会的城乡差异研究

我国少数民族学生的高等教育入学机会存在显著的城乡差异，农村少数民族学生高等教育机会获得的数量和质量都要低于城市少数民族学生：较之汉族，少数民族高等教育入学机会的城乡差异程度更为明显，反映了少数民族群体内部入学机会的城乡分化甚于汉族群体。分析我国少数民族群体内部高等教育入学机会的城乡分化状况及其成因发现，城乡教育机会的差异不是单纯的教育问题，其背后隐藏的是我国城乡二元分割的社会结构以及与此相关的一系列政治、经济、文化、教育等制度性和现实性的分离。农村少数民族学生受经济、文化、教育等多方面因素的制约，成为我国实现高等教育机会均等的最薄弱环节之一，亟待引起重视。     

Applying Ogbu’s theory of minority academic achievement to the situation of Moroccans in the low countries

Ogbu’s theories relating to the educational achievement of minorities seem to be at odds with the situation of the largest minority groups in Belgium and the Netherlands. Moroccans form a voluntary minority but, after three generations, their children still lag in terms of school results. Ethnographic research among Moroccans in both countries shows that the community forces that hinder the academic achievement of Moroccan children are in many ways similar to those of minorities that Ogbu calls involuntary. Ogbu’s insights are relevant for the situation of minorities in these countries and deserve more attention, but the initial voluntariness of the migration seems not necessarily to constitute the most crucial influence on community forces. Other factors have to be considered.     

Higher education and challenging work: Open admissions and ethnic and gender differences in job complexity

While there has been much research on the influence of educational attainment on occupational status and earnings, relatively little is known about its impact on other qualities of work, such as job complexity. This article explores how educational credentials affect access to jobs that provide challenging work. To do so it uses longitudinal data on black, Hispanic, and white men and women who attended the City University of New York after it initiated its landmark open-admissions policy in 1970. That program was designed to boost educational attainments among disadvantaged minority students and to enhance opportunities for desirable jobs. Analyses reveal that overall the jobs held by these minorities involved less complex work than those held by whites. These inequalities are explained partly by disparities in educational attainment, but differences in employment sector also are important: the minorities were more often in the public sector, where work was generally less challenging. Gender differences in work complexity are related to the varying distribution of sex-typed jobs in the public and private sectors. Policies such as open admissions add to opportunity in the labor market, but effects are limited by wider institutional conditions.     

Keys That Jingle and Fold: Federal Student Aid and the Expansion of Educational Opportunity for Black Women

Since the mid-20th century, the United States has seen a dramatic increase in Black women’s educational attainment. Given Black women’s status as “double minorities” and their disproportionate representation among low-income Americans, this trend has important implications for equal opportunity in the United States. While scholars recognize higher education as a central determinant of socioeconomic well-being and political engagement, we have yet to consider the role that federal higher education policies have played in expanding Black women’s access to college degrees. This article examines the extent to which student aid programs have supported Black women’s educational pursuits and influenced their educational attainment. I find that financial aid usage is associated with greater educational attainment and is perceived by Black women as significantly expanding educational opportunity.     

Psychological Testing in a Multicultural Society: Universal or particular competencies?

This paper deals with the issue of whether standardised psychological tests, in particular intelligence tests, are suitable for assessing ethnic minorities in a multicultural society. Three different levels of analysis are applied to address this question: the socio-political, the ethical and the test-theoretical level. The socio-political level of analysis highlights the obstacles ethnic minorities encounter when attempting to settle in a new society, and the measures that could be taken to remove these obstacles. The ethical level of analysis elucidates our point of view that: (1) universal and particular competencies both have clear roles in the lives of individuals and groups, but; (2) these can not always be reconciled in educational settings; which (3) calls for various choices: between certain political commitments (e.g. the right to cultural differences), and the consequences of these (e.g. excluding those who are different from full participation in specific, mainstream roles and functions). Central to the paper is our sense that the testing of ethnic minorities "tests" the limits and possibilities of intercultural education.     

Pension prospects of minority ethnic groups: inequalities by gender and ethnicity

Minority ethnic groups have low income in later life from private pensions, partly due to shorter employment records in Britain since migration. Yet disadvantage and discrimination in the labour market, as well as differences in cultural norms concerning women's employment, may lead to persistence of ethnic variation in private pension acquisition. Little is known about the pension arrangements made by men and women in minority ethnic groups during the working life. This paper examines the extent of ethnic disadvantage in private pension scheme arrangements and analyses variation according to gender and specific ethnic group, using three years of the British Family Resources Survey, which provides information on over 97,000 adults aged 20-59, including over 5,700 from ethnic minorities. Both men and women in minority ethnic groups were less likely to have private pension coverage than their white counterparts but the extent of the difference was most marked for Pakistanis and Bangladeshis. Ethnicity interacted with gender, so that Blacks showed the least gender inequality in private pension arrangements, reflecting the relatively similar full-time employment rates of Black men and women. A minority ethnic disadvantage in private pension coverage, for both men and women, remained after taking account of age, marital and parental status, years of education, employment variables, class and income. The research suggests that minority ethnic groups - especially women - will be disproportionately dependent on means-tested benefits in later life, due to the combined effects of low private pension coverage and the policy of shifting pension provision towards the private sector.     

Gender Gaps in Educational Outcomes Among Children of New Migrants: The Role of Social Integration from a Comparative Perspective

This article reviews current research on gender gaps in educational outcomes among children of new migrants (first, 1.5, and second generations) from a comparative cross‐national perspective. The article examines potential explanations for why gendered differences in educational outcomes among immigrants (vis‐à‐vis non‐migrants) continue to occur, focusing on individual, schooling, and institutional factors. For example, while gender gaps in expectations and aspirations as well as some cognitive outcomes are increasing (reading ability is considerably higher among females) and shrinking in specific subjects (e.g. math and science ability is slightly higher among boys), that process often has been less explored within and across immigrant vis‐à‐vis non‐immigrant students. We show that in some countries, gender gaps among disadvantaged ethnic minorities (in relation to other groups) continue to persist and are exacerbated by institutional factors. These disadvantages vary not only across different educational systems and at different rates over time but also are based on students' social background. Overall, we argue that these educational inequalities are key to understanding not only the socioeconomic and future political adaptation of migrants and their children but also future social policy developments in the European Union context.     

Canadian Ethnic Fertility

Abstract

This study investigates the relationship among ethnicity, education, and fertility for selected Canadian ethnic groups, introducing several extensions of Johnson's recent elaboration of Goldscheider and Uhlenberg's minority group status hypothesis. The findings suggest that among Asiatics and Germans the prevailing reproductive pattern is an assimilative one relative to the British majority group. Native Indians and Dutch maintain high levels of reproduction, but at post-secondary school attainment their mean family sizes converge with the British. Ukrainian, Italian, and Jewish minorities experience below average fertility, and at high levels of education it is the British group which converges with the low fertility pattern of Jews and Italians. Ukrainians differ, as their fertility is consistently below the majority group, regardless of educational level.     

The Effect of Family Immigration History on Blacks in Higher Education

Social science research has a strong tradition of explicating the link between race and educational attainment. This review explores racial differences in achievement in higher education with the added dimension of family immigration history. In particular, this article focuses on Black students and compares African-Americans or native Blacks with those Black students whose families immigrated to the United States within the past two generations. Theories which aid in this comparison are: socioeconomic explanations, segmented assimilation theory, theories of social capital, the theory of oppositional culture, and stereotype threat. Empirical evidence for each theoretical explanation is provided. This article concludes with a call for further research in differences in educational attainment by race and immigrant generation, focusing on early education, emerging multi-racial groups, and gender.     

Immigrant socioeconomic mobility in the United States: Mechanisms of inequality and the role of ethnic capital

We review recent social science research on the socioeconomic mobility of immigrants to the United States by focusing on the educational, occupational, and income attainments among immigrant adults, the first‐generation, and the educational attainment of their children, the New Second‐Generation. Existing research has identified significant inequalities in educational attainment between second‐generation Asian and Latinx immigrant groups. Researchers have also highlighted the importance of ethnic capital for mobility, but we find that they have largely proceeded with the assumption that co‐ethnic ties are easily available as a benefit for immigrants upon resettlement. We propose that future research on immigrant socioeconomic mobility should incorporate conceptual insights from economic and cultural sociology as well as use comparative ethnographic research designs to directly observe how ethnic capital operates to challenge or reinforce patterns of socioeconomic inequality.     

The right to intercultural education: students’ perspectives on schooling and opportunities for reconciliation through multicultural engagement in Bosnia and Herzegovina

ABSTRACT

In post-conflict societies, such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, education is recognised as a key factor in reconciliation. Yet the 1995 Dayton Peace Agreement set in process arrangements that mean that Bosnia and Herzegovina’s three constituent ethnic groups (Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs) are educated separately. This paper examines students’ right to integrated schooling and an intercultural education, in keeping with the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. It reports on small-scale empirical research on the impact of integrated and segregated education on students, focusing on the experiences of students who have had access to Bosnia and Herzegovina’s only fully integrated school. There are tensions between the competing educational rights of students and the cultural rights of ethno-cultural communities. Since entrenched political problems hinder the reestablishment of integrated public schooling, the paper considers the potential of service-learning and multicultural community engagement to challenge ethno-nationalist ideas promoted through segregated schools and enable peace and reconciliation.