Psychological Implications of Motherhood and Fatherhood in Midlife: Evidence From Sibling Models

Using data from 4,744 full, twin, half‐, adopted, and stepsiblings in the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study, I examine psychological consequences of motherhood and fatherhood in midlife. My analysis includes between‐family models that compare individuals across families and within‐family models comparing siblings from the same family to account for unobserved genetic and environmental endowments that may confound the relationship between parenthood and mental health. Further, I examine whether the psychological effect of parenthood varies among different types of sibling dyads. The findings reveal that parenthood has similar psychological implications for middle‐aged mothers and fathers. Main differences arise from specific configurations of the parental role. The association between parenthood and mental health partly reflects genetic influences but not shared early‐life environment.     

Sibling Facilitation Mediates the Association Between Older and Younger Sibling Alcohol Use in Late Adolescence

Previous research has shown adolescent siblings are similar in their alcohol use and that this similarity is largely due to their shared environment. Using a genetically informed sibling sample (196 full‐biological pairs, 384 genetically unrelated pairs), we confirmed that the extent to which older siblings facilitate younger siblings' alcohol use (i.e., help them get alcohol) was one factor contributing to this shared environmental association. All analyses controlled for parent and peer influences. Findings were not moderated by sibling differences in genetic relatedness, gender, or ethnicity. Proximity in sibling age strengthened these associations, somewhat. Results were especially strong for sibling pairs where the older sibling was of legal drinking age. Implications for prevention and intervention are discussed.     

Genetic and environmental influences on intimate partner aggression: a preliminary study

Social learning theory posits that, because aggression against intimates runs in families, children learn how to behave aggressively through watching their parents and being reinforced for their own aggression. This theory considers only environmental influences on familial resemblance; however, familial resemblance could also be due to genetic factors. The current study uses a twin design (134 monozygotic, 41 dizygotic) to examine the extent to which genetic and environmental factors contribute to individual differences in intimate aggression. Model-fitting analyses consistently showed that shared genes explained the familial resemblance in psychological and physical intimate partner aggression; the remaining variance was explained by unique environments. Multivariate model-fitting analyses showed that most of the genetic influences responsible for the receipt of aggression were also responsible for its use, suggesting that there is a genetic predisposition to get involved in aggressive relationships. These results challenge the prevailing theory to explain familial resemblance in intimate aggression.     

The Relation between Observational Measures of Social Problem Solving and Familial Antisocial Behavior: Genetic and Environmental Influences

Deficits in social problem‐solving skills are often associated with antisocial behavior, particularly in children’s extrafamilial relationships. The current study was designed to examine this association in several new ways: the association was examined at two times in an adolescent sample within the context of the family; genetic models were used to estimate genetic and environmental effects on observational measures of problem solving and antisocial behavior and on the association between the two. The analyses were conducted as part of the Nonshared Environment in Adolescent Development project, consisting of 720 families at Time 1 (mean adolescent age: 14.5 years) and 440 families at Time 2 (mean adolescent age: 16.1 years). Genetic influence was found for antisocial behavior, but not for problem solving. The findings of shared environmental influences on these measures and their association are unusual in the behavioral genetic literature and are important in that respect.     

Exploring Links among Imitation,Mental Development,and Temperament

Links among imitation, performance on a standardized test of intellectual development, and laboratory‐assessed temperament were explored in 311 24‐month‐old twin pairs. Moderate phenotypic associations were found among imitation, mental development, and temperament dimensions of Affect/Extraversion and Task Orientation. Covariance between imitation and mental development reflected genetic and shared environmental influences, whereas associations between imitation and temperament reflected genetic, shared, and nonshared environmental influences. Genetic factors linking imitation and temperament were the same as those linking temperament and mental development. Nonetheless, approximately 62% of total genetic variance on imitation was independent of genetic influences on mental development and temperament, suggesting that young children's imitation is not simply an index of general cognitive ability or dispositional style but has many underlying genetic influences that are unique.     

Attentional Control Explains Covariation Between Symptoms of Attention‐Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Anxiety During Adolescence

Symptoms of attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and anxiety are common during adolescence and frequently co‐occur. However, the genetic and environmental influences that underlie this co‐occurrence are understudied. Using a large twin sample (N = 1,017), we examined cross‐sectional genetic and environmental influences on ADHD and anxiety symptoms during childhood. We also explored whether these influences were shared with attentional control, a putative mechanism for symptom comorbidity. We found evidence for common genetic and nonshared environmental influences on the covariation among attentional control, ADHD, and anxiety symptoms, supporting the putative role of attentional control as a mechanism by which comorbid problems may develop. Genetic factors also accounted for symptom co‐occurrence after controlling for covariation with attentional control, suggesting the presence of additional unmeasured mechanisms.     

Still the Favorite? Parents' Differential Treatment of Siblings Entering Young Adulthood

This study examined within‐family stability in parents' differential treatment of siblings from adolescence to young adulthood and the effect of differential treatment in young adulthood on grown siblings' relationship quality. The author used longitudinal data on parent–child and sibling relations from the sibling sample of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (N = 1,470 sibling dyads). Within‐dyad fixed effects regression models revealed that the adolescent sibling who was closer to parents went on to be the young adult sibling who was closer to and received more material support from parents. Results from an actor–partner interdependence model revealed that differential parental financial assistance of young adult siblings predicted worse sibling relationship quality. These findings demonstrate the lasting importance of affect between parents and offspring earlier in the family life course and the relevance of within‐family inequalities for understanding family relations.     

Observation of Externalizing Behavior During a Twin-Friend Discussion Task

SUMMARY

In the last decade, numerous collaborations between developmentalists and behavior geneticists have extended developmental theories to genetically informative samples. This study integrates the approaches used by behavior geneticists and environmental researchers to further our understanding of the etiology of children's externalizing behavior. First, genetic and environmental influences on externalizing behavior are reviewed and studies using data from parent reports, self-reports, teacher reports, public records, and observation are described. Second, observational data from a middle-childhood twin sample are presented. Results suggest significant dominant genetic effects on observed twin negative behavior during a friend interaction (N= 148 twin pairs). In addition, nonshared environmental effects were substantial; when controlling for the coparticipant's behavior, nonshared environment was the sole source of variation. Context and method effects are discussed.     

FAMILY STRUCTURE, CLOSENESS TO RESIDENTIAL AND NONRESIDENTIAL PARENTS, AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS IN EARLY AND MIDDLE ADOLESCENCE

American adolescents currently live in a variety of different family structures, with the vast majority of adolescents living in intact, blended, divorced, and never-married families. Previous research shows that family structure correlates both with the quality of parent–adolescent relationships and adolescent psychological distress. The quality of parent–adolescent relationships also correlates with adolescent distress. This research hypothesizes that the observed differences in adolescent distress across family structure might result from differences in the quality of parent–adolescent relationships across family structure. Analyses, using data on 1,443 youth in early and middle adolescence from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY), indicate that when the variations in both the quality of parent–adolescent relationships and background characteristics across family structure are controlled, the association between family structure and adolescent psychological distress is significantly reduced. Further analyses revealed that the quality of residential parent–adolescent relationships explained the most variation in adolescent psychological distress. The quality of relationships with nonresidential fathers only had a significant association with adolescent psychological distress for adolescents in blended families.     

The Roles of Instability and Housing in Low-Income Families’ Residential Mobility

Given the repercussions of residential mobility, increased understanding of correlates of mobility is important for efforts to support family well-being. Using survey data on low-income families from the Three City Study (N = 2393), multilevel mixed longitudinal analyses examined factors associated with family residential mobility across the domains of family instability, housing and neighborhood contexts, and family characteristics. Results revealed contributions of family instability and housing and neighborhood contexts to residential mobility, with a higher rate of residential moves associated with experiences of intimate partner violence, relationship transitions, and job transitions, as well as with living in private-market rentals, substandard housing, and disordered neighborhoods. However, owning a home and living in disadvantaged neighborhoods predicted a lower rate of residential moves.     

Rethinking twins and environments: possible social sources for assumed genetic influences in twin research

A central sociological problem is the extent to which genetics and the environment influence human behavior. Studies of twins are a core method in attempts to disentangle and to determine the comparative strength of genetic and environmental influences on psychosocial outcomes. A critical assumption of twin studies is that both monozygotic "identical" twins and dizygotic "fraternal" twins share common social environments. Therefore, any greater similarity of monozygotic than dizygotic twins is attributed to genetic influences. This paper tests the equal environment assumption by examining the extent to which greater concordance of adolescent monozygotic compared to dizygotic twins results from social, as well as genetic, influences. Bivariate comparisons indicate that monozygotic twins show greater similarity than dizygotic twins in socially-based characteristics including physical attractiveness, time spent in each other's company, the overlap in friendship networks, and friends' use of alcohol. Multivariate analyses indicate that measures of the social environment sometimes reduce or eliminate apparent genetic effects. In comparison with genetic indicators, social variables are usually stronger predictors of depression and alcohol use and abuse. These findings suggest that past twin studies could overstate the strength of genetic influences because some similarities in behavior among monozygotic compared to dizygotic twins stem from social influences.     

“He Did It on Purpose!” Family Correlates of Negative Attributions About an Adolescent Sibling

Scholars have suggested that family life may influence children's attributions about close relationships. Using a sample of 369 two‐parent families with 2 children (a target adolescent in the 8th grade and a sibling aged 10 to 18), we investigated whether the sibling's negative attributions regarding the target adolescent were associated with mother's and father's negative attributions regarding the target adolescent, or the gender constellation and birth order of the sibling pair. In addition, we used the self‐reported negative attributions of both siblings and adolescents to investigate whether attributions predicted one's own behavior, or whether the behavior of the partner predicted the perceiver's negative attributions. Structural equation models showed that mothers' and fathers' negative attributions regarding the target adolescent predicted concurrent negative attributions for girls, but not boys. In addition, siblings' negative attributions regarding each other predicted their negative and positive behavior toward the partner 2 years later. The positive behavior of the attribution target also predicted the perceiver's negative attributions, but its effect was weaker. Girl sibling pairs were less negative in their attributions than cross‐sex sibling pairs and boy sibling pairs. Finally, although younger siblings were less negative in their attributions than older siblings, this difference decreased over time. This study advances the knowledge of negative attributions in close relationships by identifying family correlates of an understudied, but important, close relationship.     

The effect of father's absence,parental adverse events,and neighborhood disadvantage on children’s aggression and delinquency: A multi-analytic approach

We applied multiple statistical approaches to address the covarying nature of neighborhood, household context, and children’s behavioral problems. The focal relationship under investigation was the effect of father's presence on child’s aggression. We take advantage of hybrid models to examine within-group fixed effects of time-varying variables, while paying attention to household stable characteristics. Findings demonstrate that the level of child's aggression was influenced more by household and neighborhood-level stable characteristics. Living in a disadvantaged neighborhood had direct and indirect effects on child 's aggression, controlling for other variables. Fixed effects model showed no significant relationship between having a father in the household and child's aggression. However, hybrid models with between- and within-group differences in father's absence indicated that the between-individual difference was significantly associated with child's aggression. The findings suggest that contextual forces that precede the relationship between father's absence and child's aggression might determine who may be likely to live in households with characteristics that affect both father's absence and child's aggression. When there are systematic selection biases, statistical methods suited for determining causal inference, such as fixed effects models, cannot fully tease out larger contextual and systemic forces that sort individuals into certain types of households and neighborhoods.     

Proceed With Caution? Parents' Union Dissolution and Children's Educational Achievement

Using high‐quality Norwegian register data on 49,879 children from 23,655 families, the authors estimated sibling fixed‐effects models to explore whether children who are younger at the time of a parental union dissolution perform less well academically, as measured by their grades at age 16, than their older siblings who have spent more time living with both biological parents. Results from a baseline model suggest a positive age gradient that is consistent with findings in some of the extant family structure literature. Once birth order is taken into account, the gradient reverses. When analyses also control for grade inflation by adding year of birth to the model, only those children who experience a dissolution just prior to receiving their grades appear relatively disadvantaged. The results illustrate the need to specify and interpret sibling fixed‐effects model with great care.     

Parental Expertise,Trustworthiness, and Accessibility: Parent‐Adolescent Communication and Adolescent Risk Behavior

A communication framework of persuasion and attitude change was utilized to analyze parent‐adolescent communication about adolescent risk behavior. Three parent dimensions were deemed important: (a) perceived expertise, (b) perceived trustworthiness, and (c) perceived accessibility. Data were collected in surveys from 668 mother‐adolescent dyads in economically disadvantaged neighborhoods in New York City (N= 668). Results showed weak correspondence between how expert, trustworthy, and accessible mothers thought they were on the one hand and how their sons and daughters characterized them on the other. All dimensions were related to how often adolescents said they talked with their mothers about a risk behavior, which, in turn, was predictive of lower levels of adolescent risk behavior. Implications for future research are discussed.     

Sibling Relationships and Influences in Childhood and Adolescence

The authors review the literature on sibling relationships in childhood and adolescence, starting by tracing themes from foundational research and theory and then focusing on empirical research during the past 2 decades. This literature documents siblings' centrality in family life, sources of variation in sibling relationship qualities, and the significance of siblings for child and adolescent development and adjustment. Sibling influences emerge not only in the context of siblings' frequent and often emotionally intense interactions but also by virtue of siblings' role in larger family system dynamics. Although siblings are building blocks of family structure and key players in family dynamics, their role has been relatively neglected by family scholars and by those who study close relationships. Incorporating study of siblings into family research provides novel insights into the operation of families as social and socializing systems.     

Socioeconomic Strain,Family Ties,and Adolescent Health in a Rural Northeastern County

In adolescence, vital sources of support come from family relationships; however, research that considers the health‐related impact of ties to both parents and siblings is sparse, and the utility of such ties among at‐risk teens is not well understood. Here we use two waves of panel data from the population of 8th and 12th grade students in a geographically isolated, rural, northeastern U.S. county to assess whether socioeconomic status (SES) moderates the effects of parental and sibling attachments on three indicators of adolescent health: obesity, depression, and problem substance use. Our findings indicate that, net of stressful life events, prior health, and sociodemographic controls, increases in parental and sibling attachment correspond with reduced odds of obesity for low‐SES adolescents, reduced odds of depression for high‐SES adolescents, and reduced odds of problem substance use for low‐SES adolescents. Results suggest also that sibling and maternal ties are more influential than paternal ties, at least with regard to the outcomes considered. Overall, the findings highlight the value of strong family ties for the physical, psychological, and behavioral health of socioeconomically strained rural teens, and reveal the explanatory potential of both sibling and parental ties for adolescent health.     

Sibling Conflict and Ineffective Parenting as Predictors of Adolescent Boys' Antisocial Behavior and Peer Difficulties: Additive and Interactional Effects

Extensive sibling conflict is predictive of multiple poor adjustment outcomes during adolescence and early adulthood, but the frequency and developmental impact of such conflict may be conditional on ineffective parenting. Thus, sibling conflict may add to or amplify the negative effects of ineffective parenting on adolescent boys' adjustment. Hypotheses in this study were that: (a) multiple informant measures of problematic parent–child relationships and of sibling conflict would form distinct constructs rather than a single negative family process construct, and (b) ineffective parenting, sibling conflict, and their interaction measured at ages 10 to 12 would predict boys' concurrent status and developmental trajectories for antisocial behavior and peer adjustment across a 4‐year span from ages 12 to 16. Confirmatory factor and latent growth modeling analyses were consistent with these hypotheses, demonstrating the important developmental impact of sibling conflict.     

Step In or Stay Out? Parents' Roles in Adolescent Siblings' Relationships

We studied parents' direct involvement in adolescent sibling relationships, including parents' reactions to sibling conflict and their time spent in the company of the sibling dyad. Participants were 185 White, working‐ and middle‐class families; firstborns averaged 15 and secondborns averaged 13.5 years of age. In separate home interviews mothers, fathers and both adolescents described their personal and family relationship qualities and experiences. In a series of 7 evening phone calls, family members reported on each day's activities including the time they spent and their companions in 63 daily activities (e.g., do dishes, play sports, talk on phone). Analyses revealed 3 general conflict reactions by parents: (a) noninvolvement (e.g., tell siblings to work out problem themselves); (b) intervene (e.g., step in and solve problem); and (c) coach (e.g., give advice about how to solve problem). We found mother‐father differences in conflict reactions and time spent with siblings; differences in parents' direct involvement as a function of the gender constellation of the sibling dyad also were evident. Direct involvement was linked to sibling relationship qualities and explained variance beyond that accounted for by an index of indirect involvement, that is, parental warmth. Further, parents' orientations toward autonomy were linked to the indices of involvement such that parents with stronger autonomy orientations were less involved, and parents' orientations explained variance in their involvement beyond that explained by adolescent characteristics.     

Using the Stepfamily Genetic Design to Examine Gene-Environment Processes in Child and Family Functioning

SUMMARY

Studying children in different types of families-intact, single-mother, and stepparent families-affords opportunities for testing models of gene-environment processes, based on estimates of sibling similarity among full-siblings and half-siblings. We used a stepfamily quantitative genetic design to estimate genetic and environmental sources of variance in children's behavior problems and prosocial behaviors, as well as negativity in their relationships with their mothers and mothers' partners. Participants included full- and half-sibling pairs (same- and opposite-sex) from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Mothers reported on their children's behavior problems and prosocial behaviors, as well as negativity in their parent-child relationships, for a target child (4 years old) and oneolder sibling (M =6.31 years). There was additive genetic variance in child behavior problems and partner-child negativity, and shared environmental variance in mother-child and partner-child negativity. One-fifth to two-thirds of the variance was accounted for by nonshared environment and error. These findings were similar even after controlling for sibling gender and age differences, the resident status of the older sibling, and the older siblings' degree of contact with the nonresident biological parent. The links between parental negativity and child behavior problems were mediated by genetic covariance suggesting possible gene-environment correlation processes, and the links between parental negativity and child prosocial behaviors were mediated primarily by environmental covariance.