The social standing of jobs: Scores for all Australian occupations

This paper presents the method used to develop the ANU II status scores for all Australian occupations. For some purposes it supersedes ANU I, a 16-point scale (Broom, Jones, and Zubrzycki, 1965, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology (Suppl.) 1; Broom and Jones, 1969, American Sociological Review 34, 650–658). The two scales correlate at .83. The new scale was calculated using a broad range of data applied to a prestige score criterion to estimate an equation used to predict status scores for all occupations. These scores are available in Broom, Duncan-Jones, Jones, and McDonnell (1977, Investigating Social Mobility) along with further details of the method and results. The new scale is currently being used in the analysis of the ANU 1973 survey of social mobility in Australia, and in the reanalysis of data from the ANU 1965 survey. Preliminary results (also presented in Broom et al., 1977) indicate that the scale will be comparable both across time in Australia and across space when comparisons with the “second generation” of mobility studies is undertaken.     

The analysis of ordinal dispersion: A comparison of Leik's “D” with a variance formula

The frequency of ordinal data and the importance of attitudinal consensus in social research motivated Leik [Leik, R. L. (1966), Pacific Sociological Review 9, 85–90] to formulate a simple, effective measure of ordinal dispersion, but he did not provide a method for its statistical analysis, and its operational interpretation for nonextremal values is unclear. Leik's D is an equal-interval, “folded” scoring vector inner dot-product, scalar transformation of the vector of ordered relative frequencies. The folding point is the median category. The metric analog of D is the difference between the random variable's expected values above and below the median. An equal-interval, pure variance measure of ordinal dispersion is posited and compared to D. They correlate closely but not perfectly, and D has a serious problem when an extremal category has more than half the total cases. Both formulas are easily generalized to non-equal-interval scorings. A general linear model for categorical data permits easy statistical comparisons of D, but not the variance. D tends to underestimate the degree of significant dispersion in comparison to the variance formula, it is suggested.     

Occupational prestige from preference orientations via the Markov Chain: An alternative to respondent ranking techniques

This paper suggests a method of determining occupational prestige structures through simulation of transfer of credit processes involving the Markov Chain. The method required recording present and preferred occupations of a representative sample of employed persons. Following the example of Blau (1956) and Empey (1956) the concept “preferred occupation” is suggested as clearly distinct from occupational choice which has been treated by other researchers (Musgrave 1967; Carol and Parry 1968; Kuvlesky and Bealer 1966; Haller and Sewell 1967; Solcum 1956; and Philband and Gregory 1956). A series of Markov Chain interactions transforms the present-preferred occupation matrix, “controls” for structure limitations on ambitions and social distance, and generates a hierarchical model of occupational prestige structures. This paper examines the methodological and theoretical issues implicit in the measurement of prestige and the establishment of prestige hierarchies, and describes the procedures of the application of the Markov Chain to occupational preference responses. It reports the results of the application of this technique to a pilot sample and compares the resulting hierarchy with those derived from NORC measures and the Duncan socioeconomic index.     

Components of change in the number of female family heads ages 15 to 44, an update and reanalysis: United States, 1940 to 1983

We review the literature dealing with the various components of change in the number of female family heads and conclude that P. Cutright's (1974, Journal of Marriage and the Family 36, 714–721) four components of change in the number of ever-married female family heads can be usefully applied to a reanalysis of decade-by-decade changes in this quantity among white and nonwhite women ages 15–44, from 1940 through 1980. However, we substantially revise and update Cutright's (1974) original data. Our findings include the fact that while the relative importance of the various components of increases in ever-married female family headship vary from decade to decade, overall trends are fairly similar for white and nonwhite women. Moreover, the rapid rise between 1970 and 1980 in the number of white and nonwhite female family heads among the never-married (single) continued through the 1980 to 1983 period. A decade ago, Cutright (1974) predicted that a change in the number of female family heads from 1970 on would reflect little more than changes in the numbers of ever- and never-married women ages 15–44. We discuss this inaccurate prediction and conclude that wishful thinking is a poor guide in forecasting the future.     

Sex and marriage of raters in the evaluation of occupations

The evaluation of occupational prestige ratings obtained from different subgroups within the same society has been shown to be remarkably similar (Reiss, A. J., Jr., Duncan, O. D., Hah, P. K., and North, C. C., 1961, Occupations and Social Status, Free Press, New York; Svalastoga, K., 1959, Prestige, Class, and Mobility, Gyldendal, Copenhagen; Tiryakian, E. A., 1958, American Journal of Sociology 63 (January), 390–399). Our purpose is to explore how the gender and marital status of raters influence the evaluation of occupational prestige. Using more detailed data than heretofore available, we will reexamine the similarity between occupational prestige evaluations observed among female and male respondents. Models of the way in which characteristics of occupational incumbents, such as income and education, are constructed to explore possible differences in the ways in which male and female raters evaluate occupations. The results of this analysis by gender of rater will then be used to examine both the gender and marital status of raters.     

A note on block variables in multiequation models

This paper seeks to further refine the efforts of Coleman (Social Science Research 5, 1–20, 1976) and Igra (Social Science Research 8, 253–264, 1979) to develop summary regressionlike coefficients for causal models involving blocks of conceptually related variables, using Heise's (Sociological Methods and Research 1, 147–173, 1972) strategy of explicitly representing block concepts as unobserved intervening variables in a multiequation model. Such models can be estimated using the maximum-likelihood techniques of Jöreskog and Sörbom (LISREL IV: Analysis of Linear Structural Relationships by the Method of Maximum Likelihood, International Educational Services, Chicago, 1978). The procedure proposed leads to (a) an unambiguous definition of block variables in terms of their constituent variables; (b) a clear definition of effects of conceptual variables on one another, and on single response variables, and a reduced model formulated in terms of conceptual variables only; and (c) a clear decomposition of correlations between conceptual variables into direct effects, indirect effects, and unanalyzed components. Numerical illustration is provided.     

我国农村剩余劳动力转移路径分析——基于托达罗模型与刘易斯模型

我国在劳动力转移方面存在着严重的路径依赖问题。通过对比分析刘易斯模型和托达罗模型发现,形成托达罗悖论的条件不一定满足,可见,以托达罗模型为依托的劳动力转移路径并不适合中国的现状,反而形成了严重的路径依赖;曾经被托达罗模型所否定的刘易斯模型却极具有适应性。对我国农村劳动力转移的实证分析表明,我国确实存在一定程度的劳动力转移路径依赖,因此,应该尝试以刘易斯模型为基础的农村剩余劳动力转移路径创新。诸如,加大农村的教育投入,调整产业结构,消除资本歧视,消除阻碍劳动力转移的制度因素,以及鼓励多种多样的劳动力转移方式,等等。     

Assumptions of social mobility research in the U.S.: The case of occupational status

This paper examines the theoretical and empirical basis for common rank-orderings of occupational roles by raters throughout the world. From an illustrative comparison of occupational stratification in Australia and the United States we conclude tentatively that (1) commonalities in the socioeconomic characteristics of occupational roles provide the basis for interplace consistencies in “prestige” scores, (2) the structure of occupational mobility in the U.S. and Australia is largely similar, (3) this similar structure of occupational stratification manifests a common socioeconomic process which defines a (the?) major component of occupational mobility in capitalist, industrial (only?) societies. We infer that “prestige” scores for occupations are fallible estimates of the socioeconomic statuses of occupation, within the context of mobility processes in (at least) the U.S. and Australia.     

Qualitative variance,entropy, and correlation ratios for nominal dependent variables

In this paper we derive a measure of dispersion for a nominal variable having k ? 2 categories and compare it with ordinary quantitative variance and with entropy. We then develop two qualitative analogs to the R² statistic, one based on qualitative variance, the other on entropy. For concreteness, data from the study of The American Soldier by S. A. Stouffér, E. A. Suchman, L. C. Devinney, S. A. Star, and R. M. Williams, Jr. (1949, Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, N.J.) are used to illustrate the computations and compare these two correlation ratios for a variety of logit models. It is shown that both measures are reasonable measures of the proportion of variation of one or more qualitative dependent variables explainable by any mixture of qualitative and quantitative predictor variables. They can be used with logit, probit, dummy variable regression models, or probability models of some other type.     

Structure and process in occupational mobility

The distinction between structure and process in occupational mobility has been a dominant theme in contemporary research. While successive attempts to “solve” the structure/process dilemma have typically focused on new methodological procedures, we emphasize the conceptual issues underlying the distinction as a basis for further analysis. We introduce a simple two-stage model for the specification of mobility structure and process and use this model to evaluate current methodological “solutions” to the analysis of mobility.     

流失与更替:工人、农民数量与结构变动分析

根据人口普查资料,1982—2000年中国工人、农民两个职业的变化情况说明,这两个职业中产生了巨大的社会流动。这种流动主要体现为(1)农村青年离开农村,改变农民的职业身份;(2)原来的工人大量流失;(3)农民与工人职业的变化体现出明显的空间差异;(4)工人、农民身份的变化与人口迁移流动紧密联系。目前的这种社会流动模式存在着比较大的隐患,如果对这种模式的缺陷认识不足,就可能产生一些不利于社会长期发展的因素。     

A multivariate analysis of response structure: Race attitudes, 1972–1977

A particular kind of latent class model is used to characterize the unobservable variable measured by six discrete indicators of racial stance in 1972 and 1977. Methods recently introduced by Clogg and Goodman, 1982, Clogg and Goodman, 1983) for the simultaneous latent structure analysis of two multidimensional contingency tables are employed in across-year homogeneity tests on the latent class proportions. Trends in multivariate response patterns over the 5-year interval are then examined by cross-classifying the predicted latent variable with selected demographic characteristics of respondents in each year. The results indicate that (1) no significant changes in the distribution of the latent variable occurred over the 5-year time period, and (2) the status of certain demographic variables as predictors of racial stance fluctuated between the two survey years.     

Inter-generational micro-class mobility during and after socialism: The power,education, autonomy,capital, and horizontal (PEACH) model in Hungary

We propose a theoretical model of how occupational mobility operates differently under socialism than under market regimes. Our model specifies four vertical dimensions of occupational resources—power, education, autonomy, and capital—plus a horizontal dimension consisting of linkages among occupations in the same economic branch. Given the nature of state socialist political-economic institutions, we expect power to exhibit much stronger effects in the socialist mobility regime, while autonomy and capital should play greater stratifying roles after the market transition. Education should have stable effects, and horizontal linkages should diminish in strength with market reforms. We estimate our model's parameters using data from surveys conducted in Hungary during and after the socialist period. We adopt a micro-class approach, though we test it against approaches that use more aggregated class categories. Our model provides a superior fit to other mobility models, and our results confirm our hypotheses about the distinctive features of the state socialist mobility regime. Mobility researchers often look for common patterns characterizing mobility in all industrialized societies. Our findings suggest that national institutions can produce fundamentally distinct patterns of mobility.     

Intergeneration occupational mobility and income

The relationship between intergeneration occupational mobility and income is examined in three independent studies: (1) a sample of older men in Detroit, (2) a sample of working age men residing in one of six medium to large sized cities, and (3) a nationally representative sample of working age men. In all three studies, mobile men have lower incomes than do stable men. However, neither the direction nor the degree of mobility appears to affect income in any of the studies examined. The basic relationship between mobility per se and income does not disappear when controls are introduced for work experience, schooling, occupational origins, and occupational destinations. The observed impact of intergeneration occupational mobility on income is consistent with the view that fathers can use their personal and organizational connections to help their sons secure well-paying positions so long as the sons remain in occupations that are similar in status to those of their fathers.     

中日商品经济思想比较研究--以石门心学和清初实学为中心(上)

日本江户时代商人思想家石田梅岩创立的"石门心学",作为"町人之哲学"、"道德性实践之实学",阐述"商人之道",提倡"正直"、"俭约"的经济伦理,对日本商品经济和社会职业伦理的发展具有独特的理论贡献,被视为类似马克斯·韦伯提出的促发资本主义产生的"新教伦理".与此大抵同时,中国清初南方的"三大启蒙思想家"和北方的"颜李学派"都提倡"实学",前者提出"工商皆本"、"大贾富民者,国之司命也"之说,后者讲求"习行经济"之学,主张"本宜重,末亦不可轻".然而,基于社会结构、制度基础与思想文化差异,中日经济思想对两国近代化的历史转型与社会发展产生了不同的影响.开展两者的比较研究,有利于弥补迄今世界经济思想史大抵无东亚等缺憾.     

Problems of concept and measurement in the comparative study of occupational mobility

This paper argues that, despite a great deal of research on the topic, we have almost no firm knowledge about societal differences in the rates, patterns, and processes of occupational mobility. Insufficient attention has been paid by previous researchers to the problem of standardizing the measurement of occupational status. As a result, the paper demonstrates, existing cross-national comparisons of mobility are virtually invalid. A Standard International Occupational Prestige Scale developed by the author is proposed as a basis for valid cross-national comparison. Properties of the scale are discussed and results achieved with the scale are compared to those based on other occupational scaling procedures.     

Social mobility in 20 modern societies: The role of economic and political context

It is commonly argued that social mobility rates are influenced by economic and political conditions. Nevertheless, research on this issue has tended to be hindered by two limitations that make it difficult to draw strong conclusions about contextual effects: (1) seldom have country-level and individual-level influences been tested simultaneously, and (2) only rarely have data more recent than the 1970s been employed. We improve on previous research by employing multilevel models fitted to relatively recent survey data collected from 20 modern societies by the International Social Survey Program (ISSP) and national-level characteristics derived from various official sources. Our findings demonstrate systematic cross-national variation in the association between the occupational status of respondents and their fathers. Consistent with the industrialization thesis, this variation is positively associated with per-capita GDP, suggesting that more affluent nations are characterized by more open and fluid stratification structures. Our results also suggest the importance of political regimes and migration for social mobility. In contrast, economic inequality appears to explain very little of the cross-national variation in mobility rates.     

新型城镇化进程中的云南县域经济“蝶变”模式

由于历史和地理的原因,一直以来,云南的经济发展远远落后于东部沿海发达地区.拥有129个县市区的云南,县域经济发展更是显得相对滞后.然而,近年来,云南省围绕自身优势,深挖潜力,创新体制,优化产业,做强市场,以前所未有的力度培育县域经济,走出了一条具有云南特色的“蝶变”发展之路.     

Inequality of educational opportunity in France and the United States

Unequality of educational opportunity is related to school structure. Comparison of the attainment process in France and the United States reveals the consequences of structure for individuals' attainments. Turner's (1960) typology of educational systems is applied. The French educational system is shown to be closer to Turner's “sponsorship system,” and that of the U. S. closer to the “contest” type. Inequality of educational opportunity, as indicated by the effect of father's occupational status on years of schooling completed, is greater in France than in the U. S. The difference is accounted for by school structural variables, indicating the importance of structure for inequality of opportunity. Other differences concerning the causes of educational attainment in France and the U. S. are also discussed.     

农村居民的代际职业流动研究

文章通过对河南省蔡寨村改革开放以来就业的240位村民的调查研究发现，改革开放以来本村居民的代际职业流动总体水平比较高。个人文化程度、个人初次就业时的年龄和父亲的职业、母亲的干部身份对代际职业流动（与父亲相比）存在着影响，个人的文化程度和父、母亲的职业和家庭的经济水平对代际职业流动（与母亲相比）存在着影响。通过进一步分析发现，个人文化程度在较大程度上直接影响了个人的代际职业流动水平，而父亲的文化程度、家庭的经济水平和母亲的职业则通过子女受教育程度来间接影响个人的代际职业流动。总的来看，农村居民要想获得农民以外的职业，就要通过自己的努力提高自己的受教育水平。