从第七次人口普查看中国低生育率问题北大核心CSSCI

本文利用第七次全国人口普查数据对中国低生育率问题进行分析和再认识。研究发现长表数据和短表数据对总和生育率的估计结果基本一致,全国育龄妇女总和生育率为1.292,处于较低水平;采用去进度效应的总和递进生育率指标对递进生育的孩次结构进行分解,一孩递进生育率明显下降;育龄妇女平均生育年龄提高到28.98岁,峰值生育年龄推迟到28岁,一孩、二孩平均生育间隔时间由4年缩短到3.11年。年龄别育龄妇女有配偶比例迅速下降,育龄妇女年龄结构迅速老化,受教育程度较高的育龄妇女未婚比例快速上升,育龄人群受教育程度不同对子女的受教育预期明显不同,而受教育程度较高的育龄妇女比例迅速提高,进一步强化生育率的下降和生育水平的受教育“梯度”差别,从而导致低生育率的人口学和社会学机制的形成且保持稳定。为应对我国今后一个时期面临的低生育率或超低生育率陷阱这一突出问题,需要着重做好以下三个方面的工作:一是科学分析超低生育率的社会危害性,全面把握传统生育文化精髓,营造适宜生育的良好社会环境;二是结合各地具体实际,着力解决生育相关重点难点问题,探索解决人口问题的新方法和新路径;三是全面、系统和前瞻性研判中国人口发展新趋势,积极应对低生育率问题,促进全国人口长期均衡发展。     

对邦戈茨-菲尼方法的评述、检验与灵敏度分析

邦戈茨——菲尼于1998年提出的新方法表明孩次别平均生育年龄1年降低(或增高)0.x岁,孩次别时期总和生育率将上升(或下降)大约x％。文章对这一方法的合理性进行模拟检验与灵敏度分析。结果表明,在一般正常情况下,邦戈茨——菲尼方法的估算结果的误差率很小,而在孩次别平均生育年龄年变动幅度大于0.25岁或生育年龄分布四分位差年变动幅度大于0.1岁时的非正常情况下,邦戈茨——菲尼方法将产生超过10％的误差率。文章还讨论了邦戈茨——菲尼方法在人口政策分析中的应用。     

1990年以来中国人口出生水平变动及预测

人口出生水平取决于生育水平、 生育模式以及育龄妇女比重.文章利用1980—2010年进入生育期的妇女的初育年龄对其终身生育率进行预测,并据此测算1990年、2000年以及2010年三个人口普查年份的人口出生率,结果表明,这三个年份的出生率估计值均能够以较小的误差接近由总和生育率计算得到的人口出生率真实值.在此基础上,文章进一步解释了1990年以来中国人口出生水平持续下降以及近十年来始终处于低水平的现象,是由30岁以下的年轻育龄妇女的生育水平、 生育模式(标准化年龄别生育率)和占总人口比重共同下降所致.考虑到二孩政策的全面放开,文章还模拟了高、 中、 低三种预测情景下2011—2050年中国人口出生规模的变化,指出即使在文章设定的高生育水平方案下,人口出生规模也只能在短期内实现回升.因此,为促进未来人口出生数量渐进增加,保持人口长期均衡发展,生育政策的调整目标仍须适当提高.     

中国人口生育变化及影响因素——基于第六次人口普查的分析

本文在"六普"汇总数据的基础上,定量分析中国人口的生育水平、生育模式的变化和生育变化的影响因素。研究发现,在生育水平持续下降的情况下,结构性因素逐渐成为左右未来中国生育水平走向的决定性因素;生育模式正在向初婚初育间隔扩大,生育孩次向低孩次集中的方向发展;尽管年龄别已婚生育率的变化使得中国一般生育率上升9.613%,在导致生育水平下降的各因素中,育龄妇女年龄结构、婚姻状态等人口因素的影响显得越来越重要。研究结果对于正确理解我国的人口形势,科学地规划和调整人口政策具有十分重要的意义。     

中国孩次生育概率影响因素的多层次分析

本文根据１９９２年生育率抽样调查有关育龄妇女生育数据和村级社区资料，收集被调查县经济和省的生育政策数据，运用多层次Ｌｏｇｉｔ回归分析方法，从个体、社区、县级和省级四个层次研究影响农村育龄妇女个体生育水平的因素。结果表明，除年龄因素外，农村育龄妇女不同孩次生育概率的影响因素有很大差别。低孩次生育概率的主要影响因素为社会经济发展水平和计划生育政策，随着孩次的增加，社会经济对孩次生育概率的作用逐渐减小，并且在县级和社区级的误差项逐渐增大，这说明育龄妇女高孩次生育概率的影响因素并不能简单地用计划生育和社会经济发展的模式来解释。随着育龄妇女总体生育水平的降低，高孩次生育的影响因素研究应主要从文化因素上去考虑。     

中国妇女的生育模式—孩次递进分析的结果

近年来人们越来越清楚地认识到,时期总和生育率虽然不受人口的年龄、性别构成的影响,但因未考虑育龄妇女的孩次构成,故当生育率较低并波动比较明显时不能准确地反映妇女的生育水平(查瑞传,1984,Feeney,G.等,1989,杨书章等,1991),而考虑了妇女的孩次构成,用时期孩次递进比法计算的总和生育率的稳定性和可靠性均优于用传统方法计算的总和生育率。中国现行的计划生育政策和措施主要是以控制妇女终身生育的子女数为基础表述的。因此,孩次递进分析对于准确评估妇女的生育水平、计划生育工作状况及其地区差异有     

基于调研数据的总和生育率发展趋势及影响因素分析——来自湖北鄂州、黄石、仙桃的调查数据

文章基于5490份有效问卷的调查数据对湖北省总和生育率（TFR）进行分析。结论表明,自1985年以来年龄别生育率下降主要原因是计生政策严格控制生育数量,而非生育行为的推迟。TFR呈现先快速下降后缓慢上升的趋势,其变化与高生育水平育龄妇女占比无关。与政策生育率变化有关。通过对湖北省总出生人数进行估算和分析,结论表明1985—2008年总和生育率对总出生人数的影响程度要大于高生育水平育龄妇女占比的影响;外推预测表明2009～2014年出生人数趋势稳定,2015年以后呈下降趋势。利用Logit模型对实际生育水平的影响因素进行分析,发现有显著影响的因素为：受访者文化程度、户口性质、出生年代、工作状态、丈夫工作状态、放宽的计生政策和奖励少生的计生政策。     

云南流动人口生育水平研究

本文利用2014年云南省流动人口动态监测调查数据,运用因素分解和标准化的方法,对农业和非农业流动育龄妇女的生育水平及其生育模式差异进行讨论分析,运用标准化的方法分别分析年龄结构标准化下的年龄别生育率和一般生育率。结果表明:农业流动育龄妇女的年龄结构有利于提高一般生育率,农业流动妇女的生育水平显著低于非农业流动妇女;婚姻构成(如有偶率、初婚年龄)和婚内生育率(生育控制)对生育率的影响都发挥了重要作用。     

中国妇女孩次递进比的变动趋势和生育政策分析

以孩次递进与生育间隔变化为主要特征的中国计划生育已推行了20多年,如何客观、历史、辩证地研究与分析中国妇女生育率,尤其是开展计划生育工作以来妇女生育率及其变动趋势,正确估价计划生育工作在中国妇女生育率下降过程中的地位与作用,对于帮助我们认清形势,总结经验,指导当前计划生育工作,以进一步控制人口的过快增长具有十分重要的意义。本文选用排除育龄妇女年龄结构、婚姻结构与孩次结构影响,因而比妇女一般生育率与总和生育率指标能更准确地反映妇女实际生育水平,同时与中国现行生育政策联系最为密切的孩次递进比指标,对近20年来中国妇女生育率变动趋势与生育政策实际执行效果作一粗浅的分析。文中分析所使用资料为1988年中国生育节育抽样调查资料。     

孩次递进生育指标和生育指标的调整——与郭志刚教授商榷

文章主要针对郭志刚教授《关于生育政策调整的人口模拟方法探讨》一文,从普查数据计算年龄别孩次递进比、依据递进生育率推算的出生数和根据递进生育率进行预测三个方面讨论了郭志刚教授该文中的方法,并提出了自己的看法。     

中国人口年龄结构变动对出生率的影响研究

本文利用相关年份的《中国统计年鉴》和人口普查数据,根据粗出生率与总和生育率的关系与特征,构建了人口年龄结构系数及其对粗出生率变动影响的贡献率指标,分析了建国以来人口年龄结构变动对出生率的影响。研究发现：1949—1979年,人口年龄结构变动对出生率的影响很小;1980—1993年,人口年龄结构变动对出生率的影响迅速上升,年龄结构的贡献率增大;1994—2008年,人口年龄结构变动对出生率的影响趋于下降,人口惯性势能在减弱;2009—2011年,受80—90年代出生高峰的影响,人口年龄结构变动对出生率的影响再次凸显,年龄结构的贡献率迅速增大。从年龄别生育率逐年下降的特点,也可以证明近年推动我国人口增长的力量主要是由于年龄结构带来的惯性增长。     

生育进度效应调整指标研究的新进展

随着经济和社会的不断发展,生育推迟现象在全世界范围内日益普遍。由于生育推迟所产生的进度效应会对生育水平造成影响,因此,如何测度生育进度效应便成了人口学界研究的重要内容。自Bongaarts和Feeney的去进度效应总和生育率提出以来,各种新的改进方法与指标不断出现。本文对生育进度效应调整指标的新进展及具体指标进行梳理与比较。从时期角度出发,主要包括方差效应调整后的TFR、PATFR*、调整后的TFRSUV_N和ITFR四种指标;从队列角度出发,主要包括TFRp*、TFR†和ACF三种指标,这些指标有各自的优缺点。研究发现:首先,由于不同去进度效应改进指标的假设、适用条件、研究角度、改进方向都不同,很难有一套数据同时适用于多种去进度方法,因此,生育进度效应的诸多改进指标并没有哪个指标“更好”,只有“更合适”;其次,绝对的去进度效应只能停留在理论层面,而实际上却很难做到,种种去进度方法都只是一种“相对的去”,而不是“绝对的去”。过去我们所熟悉的进度效应是生育推迟,而目前世界范围内生育推迟速度开始逐渐放缓,未来我们甚至不能排除生育推迟在某个时期或某些区域会发生逆转,届时可能会出现与目前影响方向相反的进度效应,这可能是下一步关于生育进度效应研究应该注意的新方向。     

Growth of U.S. population, 1940–1971, in the light of an interactive two-sex model

Since it is logically impossible to hold constant both male and female age-specific fertility rates, the intrinsic growth rates or the net reproduction rates for males and females, based on that assumption, are internally inconsistent. The interactive two-sex model presented in this paper holds constant a set of bivariate age-specific fertility rates by age of men and women and allows the male and female age-specific fertility rates to adjust themselves to achieve stability. The model gives the same intrinsic growth rate for both sexes and generates intrinsic age-specific fertility rates and intrinsic net reproduction rates for males and females which are consistent and can operate simultaneously on a population. The model is applied to the U.S. data for 1940–1971, and the results are compared with those obtained from the one-sex models.     

Social change,population policies,and fertility decline in Colombia and Venezuela

This paper takes a comparative case-study approach to examine the social and policy correlates of fertility decline. The analysis compares fertility behavior across a mature and young cohort of women in Colombia and Venezuela, two countries that experienced rapid demographic change under dissimilar socioeconomic and population policy conditions. Based on the distinction between birth-spacing and birth-stopping behavior the analysis tests several propositions derived from the adaptation and innovation explanations of fertility decline. Results show that fertility regulation at low parities was largely absent among mature women in both countries, representing an innovative behavior among younger women. The introduction of fertility control, however, was highly dependent on women's socioeconomic position, particularly their educational and occupational characteristics. The strong family planning programs in Colombia resulted in a more rapid extension of contraceptive use, particularly female sterilization, and stopping behavior after two children relative to Venezuela. Results highlight the diversity of conditions under which fertility can decline in developing countries and the importance of family planning and other policy initiatives to understanding the different pathways towards lower fertility.     

亚洲女性收入对生育率影响的国际比较研究--基于劳动参与率、受教育程度、就业方式的视角

通过构建家庭效用函数模型，论证了家庭收入增长中女性收入对家庭生育决策的影响，说明了随着女性收入的提高，会降低生育率。进一步，通过引用女性劳动参与率、受教育程度及就业方式作为女性收入对生育率影响的中间变量，再运用相关数据进行实证分析，发现女性劳动参与率、受教育程度对生育率有着负向的影响，而女性非全日制就业方式对生育率有着正向的影响。再进一步，对亚洲各国生育政策的调整进行国际比较，探讨生育政策的具体措施与影响女性收入的三个因素之间的关系，最后针对中国目前的生育水平提出两方面的建议：硬政策的完善和软环境的支持，以有助于提高人口素质，优化人口结构。     

生育一孩弱化二孩生育意愿吗？——基于北京市“单独”家庭的考察

本文使用北京市西城区2013年生育意愿调查数据,基于不同的生育意愿测度指标,采用描述分析和回归分析方法检验城市＂单独＂家庭中生育一孩对二孩生育意愿的作用,并借助倾向值分析方法控制生育状况的自选择问题,从而使得研究结论更具稳健性和可靠性。结果表明,城市＂单独＂家庭的二孩生育意愿并不低迷,生育一孩能够强化育龄妇女的二孩生育意愿,而且生育状况的作用在生育意愿的众多影响因素中较为突出。上述结果需要在生育意愿的评估和生育政策的制定中有所关注。     

Modernization process and fertility change in pre- and post-Islamic Revolution of Iran

The purpose of this paper is to examine some of the possible causal links between modernization forces and fertility patterns of the Iranian provinces during three time periods, 1966, 1976 and 1986. A modernization scale was constructed using Iranian census data. Six indicators of industrialization, urbanization and universal education were used to develop the scale. The ratio of children under 5 years per women 15 to 44 years old was used as a measure of fertility. The findings show that modernization has proceeded upward in an almost consistent pattern in all the provinces during 1966–1986. The Islamic Revolution and Iran-Iraq War not only did not disrupt the modernization trend, it seems that both events accelerated the rate of change. The modernization indicators, individually and collectively, were significantly and inversely correlated with fertility ratios. However, the fertility ratios of the provinces substantially increased in the decade of 1976 to 1986. Our thesis is that the elimination of the national family planning program which happened in the early part of the post-Islamic Revolution had significant effect on the fertility increase of the period 1976 to 1986. The current active family planning program of the Islamic Republic of Iran suggests that the fertility rate of Iran, very likely, will decline in the near future if the current modernization trend and fertility regulation policy continue.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 22nd General Conference of the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population, Montreal, Canada, 24 August 1993.     

Bargaining over family size: The determinants of fertility in Brazil

Understanding how households make fertility decisions is important to implementing effective policy to slow population growth. Most empirical studies of this decision are based on household models in which men and women are assumed to act as if they have the same preferences for the number of children. However, if men and women have different preferences regarding fertility and are more likely to assert their own preferences as their bargaining power in the household increases, policies to lower fertility rates may be more effectively targeted toward one spouse or the other. In this paper, we test the relevance of the single preferences model by investigating whether men and women's nonwage incomes have the same effects on the number of children in the household. We find that while increases in both the man and woman's nonwage income lower the number of children in the household, an equivalent increase in the woman's income has a significantly stronger effect than the man's. In addition, we find that increases in women's nonwage transfer income have the strongest effects on the fertility decisions of women with low levels of education. The most important policy implication of our results is that policies aimed at increasing the incomes of the least-educated women will be the most effective in lowering fertility rates.     

The construction of the fertility model of variable parity from family planning practice]

Understanding the changing patterns of age specific fertility under the planning system is essential for building a fertility model which reflects birth control policy implementation in China. In building a Parity Variable Fertility Model, 4 basic elements are to be considered: 1) psychosocial, and physiological variables, 2) patterns of the total fertility rate and age-specific fertility rate, 3) socioeconomic development, and 4) distribution of parity-specific fertility. THe natural fertility of women is 17, calculated from a 309-years childbearing period, with 17% of non-susceptible time. In China, about 86% of natural fertility is suppressed by various factors. In this model, the following variables are included: 1) The first marriage ratio, which is the proportion of women in each age group which enters into a first marriage. The range and spread of this ratio is closely associated with the first birth. 2) The first birth ratio, which is the proportion of a marriage cohort to have a first birth each year. 3) the birth interval, which determines the distribution of second births. 4) Regulation coefficient B, which represents birth control regulations which approximately determine the number of second-parity or higher order births. The difference between the fertility level generated from the Parity Variable Fertility Model and reality depends on the implementation of birth control program, the assumptions on regulation coefficients, and changes in social and cultural factors. The model is easy to use, especially for areas where the marriage and fertility records of women of child-bearing are well kept.