民国时期上海知识群体的职业分层(1927—1937)

本文从职业类型、教育背景、职业流动、职业收入、职业声望等几个层面考察1927至1937年间上海知识群体的职业分层。这一时期的上海知识群体主要由作家与自由撰稿人、新闻与出版业从业者、大学教师三种职业群体构成。家庭出身与教育经历对形塑知识群体的阶层习性具有重要影响。上海城市社会结构的开放性与稳定性使得知识群体内部有大量的职业交叉和社会流动,但同一阶层内的横向流动居多,不同阶层之间的纵向流动较少。尽管知识群体的职业收入在同时期上海城市居民收入中位居中等水平,但群体内部具有明显的差异与分化。民国时期上海知识群体在职业类型、教育背景、社会流动等方面开始具有阶层的雏形,但群体内部在职业收入与消费行为等方面的差异使得群体成员不具有作为一个阶层整体的职业威望与社会身份,无法就阶层认同感达成共识。     

族群与教育不平等:我国西部少数民族教育获得的一项实证研究

摘 要：本文通过梳理国内外有关族群（民族）分层的文献,认为有必要把“民族”纳入到中国的市场转型和社会分层理论框架之中,并从教育获得的角度对这一问题进行实证分析。影响中国少数民族教育获得的因素主要包括：城乡地域区隔、职业结构（阶层）、文化差异和国家政治进程（政策变迁）。基于对2004年中国西部抽样调查数据分析,作者发现：（1）基础教育阶段入学的族群差异主要由城乡差别和阶层不平等造成,族群不平等已不显著;（2）少数民族子女高中升学概率依然显著低于汉族,其原因部分在于城乡、地域和阶层因素,部分在于少数民族和汉族的文化差异（如语言环境）等因素;（3）与汉族教育不平等的代际传递模式不同,少数民族教育不平等的代际传承以资源转化模式为主,从而影响了不同族群在教育扩展中的获益程度。总体而言,虽然中国西部少数民族的教育获得仍显著落后于汉族,但其教育不平等更多地来自城乡和阶层之间的差异。     

中国家庭教养实践与阶层分化研究

教养实践是家庭资本在代际间传递的主要手段。家庭中的教养实践是儿童不断积累文化资本的过程,这个过程与家庭的阶层背景紧密相关。基于2010年中国家庭追踪调查数据,同时考虑祖代和父代的社会阶层,将家庭的阶层背景分为持续上层、新上层、新下层和持续下层。分析显示,不同阶层的家庭拥有不同的教养实践模式,教养实践模式在多代间可以传递,家庭的阶层背景与教养实践又影响着子女的学业成就。相比于祖代,向上流动的父代家庭在教养实践与子女学业成就上更接近持续上层,向下流动的家庭则颇为特殊:教养实践上更接近持续上层,而子女学业表现上则更接近持续下层。由此来看,中国阶层结构及其变化趋势有着更为复杂的面向。     

谁主认同？转型时期中国女性阶层地位认同的多重建构及其世代变迁

女性的阶层地位认同研究近年来受到广泛关注，但缺乏多重建构视角下基于长期转型背景的世代变迁分析。本文旨在回答两个重要问题：第一，已婚女性的阶层地位认同是否受到婚姻匹配与代际流动的影响，丈夫、父亲与女性自身的客观阶层及其差异如何影响女性的主观地位认同；第二，上述影响模式如何随出生世代发生变化。在使用对角线参照模型分析中国综合社会调查（CGSS）2010—2017年的合并数据后发现：相较于自身的客观阶层，中国已婚女性整体上倾向于以丈夫的客观阶层来建构自身的阶层认同，但越年轻的世代这一倾向越弱；父亲客观阶层的影响则与自身客观阶层的影响并重，甚至随世代变迁略有增强。上述结果体现了中国特色的家庭现代化模式，即已婚女性虽愈少依赖于配偶，但依然与原生家庭保持着紧密连结。     

社会分层与健康不平等的性别差异:基于生命历程的纵向分析

本研究考察在社会分层与性别分层的交互作用下,生命历程中的两个竞争性理论--“累积优势/劣势理论”和“年龄中和效应理论”,哪一个更能解释中国男性和女性所经历的健康不平等。本研究利用“中国健康与营养调查”（CHNS）追踪数据和成长曲线模型发现,性别对社会分层导致的健康不平等及其发展有独特的影响。与男性相比,女性在各个年龄阶段都处于健康劣势,这一劣势是因为女性从教育和收入所获得的健康回报比男性低。此外,女性之间因为教育和收入导致的健康不平等程度随年龄的增长而缩小,男性之间的健康不平等程度并不随年龄的增长而改变,因此,本研究不支持健康不平等的“累积优势/劣势假说”,而是在女性群体中支持“年龄中和效应理论”。     

社会分层结构的变革：从“决定性”到“交易性”

改革开放30年来,无论是在社会上还是在学术研究中,尽管在有关社会分层的几乎所有方面人们的看法都存在分歧,但有一点是共同的,即在这30年中,中国社会的分层结构发生了巨大变革.在社会分层研究的三个主要领域中(阶层结构、社会不平等和社会流动),本文将主要关注阶层结构的变革.在一定意义上,社会不平等与社会流动都可以从阶层结构的视角上得到解释.     

Educational Opportunities for Rural and Urban Residents in China, 1978-2008： Inequality and Evolution

改革开放以来,随着中国教育规模的扩张,城乡居民的受教育水平逐年提高,但教育不平等问题并未得到有效改善。本文使用CGSS2008数据,检验户籍、家庭社会经济地位、父母受教育年限以及兄弟姐妹数量等因素对初中、高中和大学三个教育阶段升学机会的影响及其作用在1978至2008年期间的变化趋势。研究发现,初中升学机会的城乡差异没有变化,高中和大学升学机会的城乡不平等有扩大趋势;父亲职业地位对子女升学机会的影响保持不变,表明教育获得的阶层差异自1978年以来没有发生明显变化;父母受教育年限对子女教育获得的作用显著,而且其作用持续上升;因兄弟姐妹数量差异导致的教育不平等也有上升趋势。要理解改革后中国教育不平等的结构及其演变,除讨论阶层不平等外,尚需关注影响居民教育决策的微观机制。     

流动模式与农民工婚姻稳定性研究:基于性别和世代的视角

基于广州2016年的“农民工社会融合与婚姻家庭调查”数据，本文从性别和世代的角度系统探讨了农民工的婚姻稳定性问题。分析结果表明，新生代农民工的婚姻稳定性显著低于第一代农民工，女性农民工婚姻稳定性低于男性农民工，且新生代女性农民工婚姻稳定性最低。流动模式对农民工婚姻稳定性具有显著影响，且这种影响存在性别和世代差异，其中流动模式形塑着农民工的婚姻收益和离婚阻力，流动模式对农民工婚姻稳定性的影响，同时又受到具体的性别效应和世代效应的共同影响，其中的脆弱性差异机制可以解释流动模式对农民工婚姻稳定性影响的性别效应和世代效应。     

种姓的社会流动及其理论

一社会学把社会成员的职业和社会地位的变动称作“社会流动”。根据不同的标准,社会流动可分为“垂直流动”(一个人从地位较低的阶级或阶层转进到地位较高的阶级或阶层,或者相反)和“水平流动”(在同一地位的人由一种职业向另一种职业的横向流动)、“一生中的流动”(一个人一生中的职业地位的变化)和“代际流动”(两代人之间的流动)、以及“结构性流动”(由于生产技术方面或社会方面的革命、变革引起的阶级阶层结构或人口地区分     

灾后重建中的资源再分配与健康不平等:基于三期汶川地震重建调查

基于2008年至2011年间三期汶川灾区调查数据，本文假定应急救灾、恢复重建和重建结束三个阶段政府的再分配能力存在差异，进而分析这一时段不同职业和教育群体之间的健康差异变化情况。研究发现，首先，在自评健康上，2011年呈现显著的教育梯度，而2008和2009年则无显著的教育差异。其次，在心理健康上，2011年存在显著的教育梯度，2009年存在较弱的教育梯度，2008年未呈现系统性教育梯度。第三，在自评和心理健康上各年份均未呈现系统性的职业阶层梯度。第四，稳健性比较分析表明灾区健康差异模式存在独特性。本文认为，在应急救灾阶段政府再分配能力骤增，提升了弱势阶层的医疗资源可及性，进而降低了阶层健康不平等。但该模式不具有可持续性，一旦重建结束、外部资源减少，不平等会回到常态社会水平。     

与祖辈同住:当前中国家庭的三代居住安排与青少年的学业表现

通过分析具有全国代表性的初中学生样本数据，本研究考察了影响当前中国家庭三代共同居住的决定因素、三代居住安排与青少年学业表现之间的关系及其中间机制。首先，家庭社会经济地位较低、母亲在职或单亲家庭的青少年更可能与祖辈同住。其次，代际居住安排会显著影响青少年的学业表现，控制了其他因素之后，三代共同居住（与祖辈同住）家庭的学生的学业表现要优于两代核心家庭的学生。第三，与祖辈同住的效应受到家庭社会经济地位和家庭结构的调节，来自较低阶层或非双亲家庭的学生从与祖辈同住中获益更多。最后，与祖辈同住在一定程度上通过加强亲子间的家庭社会资本这一机制作用于学生的学业表现。本文表明，在现代社会，家庭亲属网络仍然对个体的地位获得或社会流动具有十分重要的作用。     

“孙子比老人大”：阿卡礼中的祖孙关系及其扩展的亲属世界

本文通过考察云南哈尼族阿卡人家庭内部的祖孙关系及其在治疗祈福仪式“拴线礼”中的呈现,探索其建构社会的方式和过程。研究发现,阿卡父系家庭在强调丰产和家族延续的福气观念下,突出“老人大”和“孙子比老人大”的双向式等级结构。该结构经由辈分、性别、居住地、血亲、姻亲等差别变量的叠加互动,从家庭仪礼中扩展出卷动多个家系和村寨的人群等级关系,构建出更广大的社会世界,既体现了男/女性后代和姻亲对于家族延续的不同重要性,也表达了多姓村寨共同体内部的互助团结与整合精神。本文为等级、礼物和家庭研究拓宽了讨论空间。     

Relationships with Grandparents and the Emotional Well-Being of Late Adolescent and Young Adult Grandchildren

We investigated whether and under what family conditions young adult grandchildren psychologically benefit from having close and supportive grandparent relations. Relying on parental absence and family systems perspectives, we hypothesized that grandparents will be most effective in reducing depressive symptoms and increasing self-esteem of grandchildren who were raised in single-parent and step-parent families, as well as those with poorer quality relations with their parents. We analyzed data from a sample of grandchildren aged 18–23 years who were surveyed in the 1992–1994 wave of the National Survey of Families and Households (n = 925). Hierarchical multiple regressions with interaction terms found that greater cohesion with grandparents decreased depressive symptoms, particularly among grandchildren raised in single-parent families. However, cohesive grandparent relations reduced depressive symptoms more in the presence of stronger ties to parents. The model partially supports the long reach of grandparents as compensatory resources for mature grandchildren whose families of origin were absent a parent. Implications for future research on the role of grandparents in family systems are discussed.     

Parenting a 6-Year Old Is Not What I Planned in Retirement: Trauma and Stress among Grandparents Due to the Opioid Crisis

ABSTRACT

There is little research about trauma, financial stress, and social service needs emanating from the experience of parenting grandchildren caused by the opioid crisis in the United States. We conducted a qualitative study with 15 grandparents who currently or in the past had custodial care of their grandchildren. We also interviewed nine issue-related stakeholders in Eastern Massachusetts. Specific inquiries centered on events leading up to a change in guardianship, stressors related to legal, financial, and family issues, and system-wide response to the grandparents’ needs. Results indicate that the opioid crisis presents distinct challenges for the grandparent-led families and for the systems that serve the new family arrangement. Crisis triggers a change in guardianship and continues throughout the years. The continued crises stem from events related to the parent’s opioid use disorder (OUD) and from expenses related to raising a young family, especially when the grandchild has adverse childhood experiences. Our analysis shows that systems break down on a number of levels, and the fluidity of custodial arrangements due to parents’ OUD status does not map onto existing support or benefit systems. Policy responses must focus on the immediate and long-term needs of grandparent caretakers, especially since the opioid crisis is likely to continue.     

Perceptions of grandparents who provide auxiliary care: value transmission and child‐rearing practices

A grounded theory qualitative study was developed to explore how grandparents perceive their role as socializing agents. Forty‐two grandparents with grandchildren aged from 6 to 12 years old participated in this study. Data were collected through focus groups, which were conducted until reaching data saturation and analyzed using the constant comparative method. Four general conclusions emerged from the study: (i) grandparents recognized the importance of getting involved in the socialization of grandchildren as supporters of parents' socializing role, and the need to adapt to social changes; (ii) they emphasized traditional value that were perceived in decline, and combination of warmth and involvement were considered the best way to help grandchildren internalize values; (iii) interaction with grandchildren helped grandparents to feel active and useful, increased their life purpose and gave them a second chance to enjoy what they could not with their own children; and (iv) grandparents also accused burden and role ambiguity. These results show the importance of developing family policies that recognize grandparents' socializing role. Also, interventions that promote strategies that enable grandparents to perform their role more successfully and to cope with possible family conflicts should be developed.     

教育扩招促进了代际流动?

本文基于中国综合社会调查的数据,以改革开放后参加工作的群体为研究对象,实证分析了中国高等教育扩招对代际流动的影响。研究发现,没有充足证据证明教育扩招促进了代际流动。一方面,尽管教育在扩张前后始终是决定个人社会经济地位高低的最重要因素,但教育扩招没有显著改善教育机会不均等问题,从而也无法减弱家庭背景以教育为中介对子女初职社会经济地位的间接影响,带来代际流动的改善。另一方面,教育扩招的结构化效应不显著,大学毕业生面临的劳动力市场并非完全遵循绩效原则,因此,即便教育扩招提高了他们在社会总人口中的相对比例,也无法带来社会整体代际流动的改善。因此,发挥教育扩招促进代际流动的功能,不仅要强调教育机会的分配公平问题,同时也要努力完善劳动力市场建设,促进就业机会均等。     

Contributors to well-being of Chinese left-behind families: A dyadic perspective from family resilience and grandparent–grandchild relationship

There is evidence that grandchildren and grandparents in Chinese left-behind families (CLBF) suffer from immense life stressors. The well-being of both generations is of great concern. Guided by the family adjustment and adaptation response model and ecological model of well-being, the present study aimed to investigate the dyadic associations between family resilience and subjective well-being (SWB) of left-behind grandchildren and grandparents. Furthermore, we explored the extent to which relationship quality accounts for such reciprocal associations. A sample of 130 left-behind grandparent–grandchild (GP–GC) pairs completed self-reported questionnaires. Actor–partner interdependence model (APIM) revealed that both grandchildren's and grandparents' reported family resilience positively associated with their own SWB but not the other's SWB. Grandchildren's and grandparents' perceived relationship quality mediated the association between their perceived family resilience and their own SWB. Moreover, grandchildren-perceived relationship quality mediated the association between grandchildren-perceived family resilience and grandparents' SWB. Meanwhile, grandparent-perceived relationship quality mediated the association between grandparent-perceived family resilience and grandchildren's SWB. The findings highlighted the significance of family resilience and relationship quality in boosting the two generations' SWB in CLBF. The results also suggested that left-behind grandchildren and their grandparents depend on each other. Future intervention programs could be benefitted from integrating the enhancement of family resilience and improvement of grandparent–grandchild relationship quality to promote the well-being of left-behind family members.     

‘It's rewarding because I get the love’: Grandparents raising grandchildren with foetal alcohol spectrum disorder

The aim of this study was to explore the lived experiences of grandparents raising their grandchildren with foetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD). Specifically, we sought to identify how caregivers make meaning of their experience, what challenges are faced by grandparents while raising a second generation and what positive experiences are encountered. Ten grandparents raising a child with FASD in Ontario, Canada, participated in semi-structured interviews. Interpretative phenomenological analysis was used to analyse the interviews to determine reoccurring themes. Three main themes were identified: (i) challenges when raising a grandchild with FASD, including kinship adoption struggles and intergenerational issues; (ii) worries about the future, including financial planning and health concerns; and (iii) rewards, such as shifts in priorities and the opportunity to raise a second generation. Grandparents raising their grandchildren with FASD face challenges and thus require specific supports so that they may adequately provide a safe and nurturing home environment for children with often challenging learning and social needs.     

Grandparent support and mental and behavioural health in middle childhood

This study explored the significance of grandparents in middle childhood and assessed the level of grandparental support provided to children in relation to other social network members. The association between grandparental support and grandchildren's mental and behavioural health was also examined. We conducted structured interviews with 120 grade 4 and 5 learners (mean age = 10.41 years) from four schools in Cape Town, South Africa. Results indicated that subsequent to parents, children perceived grandparents as the most important and close relationship category. Furthermore, grandparents provided the highest levels of support to grandchildren after parents. Grandmothers provided more support than grandfathers. No associations between grandparental support and children's internalizing and externalizing behaviours were found. However, results revealed that grandparental support was positively associated with children's prosocial behaviour, independent of child gender, and the amount of support provided by other relationship categories (p = .04). Findings underscore a need for research to move beyond the nuclear family when considering potential influences on children's well‐being.     

‘My daughter is a drug addict’: grandparents caring for the children of addicted parents

This article reports on one aspect of a large multi-method survey of grandparents raising grandchildren, carried out in 2016. The research report [Gordon L. (2016). The empty nest is refilled: the joys and tribulations of grandparents raising grandchildren in New Zealand. Auckland: Grandparents Raising Grandchildren Trust (NZ)] notes that the most commonly cited reason for children coming into care was parental drug addiction. This article reports on the circumstances and well-being of families where parental drug addiction was cited as a reason for the children living with grandparents. Common causes of grandparents struggling to care for their grandchildren were personal health issues, housing, financial problems and dealing with traumatised or unwell children. Contact with parents was often random, with non-contact caused by parental death, imprisonment, parents moving away or re-forming families, children not wanting to see the parent or parents not turning up for scheduled visits. As noted in another article [Gordon L. (2017). Experiences of grandparents raising grandchildren in getting income support from Work and Income offices in New Zealand. Kotuitui. 12(2):134–145], many of the families had difficulty getting income support from Work and Income. Many of the children suffer from a range of emotional and behavioural problems, leading to concerns about their future. The conclusion considers the policy and service implications of these findings, in the context of the growing ‘epidemic’ of methamphetamines and other drug use in Aotearoa.