中国的制度变迁、阶级结构转型和收入不平等：1978-2005

本文结合制度主义理论与新马克思主义的阶级分析方法,提出在中国社会分层研究中“把阶级带回来”的观点。根据户口制度、单位制度、干部身份制和私有产权等造成转型时期中国不平等的重要制度性因素,建立一个以对不同形式生产性资产的占有为基础的即新马克思主义取向的中国阶级分类方式,并在经验层面展示了其较之于其他分类法的优越性。研究认为,中国正在发生的制度转型对社会不平等秩序的重塑表现为不同形式的生产性资产,即劳动力、资本、组织、技术/权威等四种所有权作用的相对转变,从而导致阶级结构的转型和贫富差距的拉大。     

农民工的城市定居意愿研究——基于七省（区）调查数据的实证分析

|本文以2007年7省区的调查数据为基础,对农民工的城市定居意愿及其因素进行实证分析。研究发现,农民工既表现出对城市定居的向往,又呈现出一种矛盾和模糊性的心理状态。相对于人力资本而言,家庭因素、社会支持因素对农民工城市定居意愿的影响更加明显。农民工的定居决策主要受市场性、文化心理性和制度性三类因素的影响,其中,市场性因素正在成为显在的主因,制度性因素的作用已经有所下降,但市场因素的根源仍然来自于制度性因素。     

认识中国的不平等

摘要：基于以往的研究,作者在本文中进一步提出了以下命题：（1）中国的不平等很大程度上受到一些集体机制的影响,例如区域和单位;（2）传统中国的政治意识形态助长了以业绩为基础的不平等,业绩被认为能够促进民众的集体福利;（3）目前很多中国人认为不平等是经济发展的一种不可避免的后果。有鉴于此,作者认为,社会不平等的问题本身在当今中国不太可能造成政治和社会的不稳定。     

养老沟通的现代障碍及其理论出路

与前现代不同,现代社会中老年人与养老者之间的沟通障碍是与现代社会的结构及运行原则紧密相连的:文化的多样化和歧异化加深了代际隔阂和代际冲突,正式的退休制度强制性地使老年人离开正式组织和主流社会,社会生活的理性化和核心家庭化将老年人排斥于主流社会生活之外,意识形态上的"青年取向"贬低了老年人的价值观.卢曼的沟通理论以意识系统的自主性代替了人的主体性,从而为解决养老沟通的现代障碍提供了理论上的前景:老年人不仅需要正常的沟通,而且也有天然平等的沟通能力;通过张扬老年人的沟通权利,消除社会对老年人的偏见和歧视,培训养老者的沟通意愿和能力,是可以扭转老年生活的"去社会化"定位为"再社会化"定位的.     

代际流动的模式：理论理想型与中国现实

本文在疏理西方代际流动理论的基础上,提出流动模式的三种理想类型,并分析其制度条件和结构特征,希望能对当代中国社会流动的特征和趋势分析有所启发。本文认为,在不同的制度背景和社会条件下,相应的流动模式是不同的。本文提出三种理想类型对应于三种不同的社会类型,分别是（1）依据绩效原则的自由竞争模式,其特征是流动机会按个人能力和贡献分配,对应于完全市场制度的社会;（2）社会不平等结构下的家庭地位继承模式,其特征是家庭的社会经济背景对子女的地位获得有决定性的影响,社会的不平等结构因此而代代相传,如果一个社会的不平等程度越大,跨阶层流动越困难,代际的地位继承性特征越突出;（3） 国家庇护流动模式,其特征是国家通过政策和制度设计,干预社会流动进程,特定的阶层将拥有更多的流动机会、或被剥夺应有的机会。文章最后对中国改革开放后流动模式的转变和现状提出了一些基本的判断。     

社会排挤与女性劳动权益的法律救济

在女性劳动权益救济领域,其主要难题是社会排挤.对女性劳动权益的社会排挤,不仅表现为性别歧视,而且也表现为基于性别歧视而引发的户籍歧视、行业歧视、年龄、容貌和身高歧视以及婚姻和怀孕歧视.上述歧视的发生,漠视和剥夺了女性的劳动权益,导致女性劳动权益保障的弱化.对女性劳动权益予以法律救济,就是要消除一切形式的性别歧视和社会排挤,确保女性享有与男性平等的劳动权和其他基本人权,使男女两性从形式平等走向实质平等.救济女性劳动权益的法律路径,在于厘定法律救济的观念基础和法律救济的制度架构,为女性劳动权益的切实保障奠定观念基础和制度基础.     

收入不平等与个体健康——基于2005年中国综合社会调查的实证分析

文章利用2005年中国综合社会调查（CGSS2005）数据与县级社会统计资料,通过拟合多层Logistic回归模型,分析了地区收入不平等程度对个体健康状况的影响,系统检验了绝对收入理论和收入不平等理论。结果表明,即使在控制了个体收入对健康的凹陷效应之后,县级收入不平等程度仍对个体自评健康具有显著的负面影响。对收入不平等影响健康的作用机制的进一步分析表明,社会心理机制仅能部分解释不平等对健康的负面效应,而新唯物主义机制未能得到经验支持。     

社会经济地位、生活方式与健康不平等

以往研究多认为社会经济地位是人们健康水平最重要的决定因素,但对其影响机制却缺乏理论解释和检验。而社会流行病学研究关注与健康相关的生活方式及行为因素对人们健康水平的影响,但忽视了社会结构因素对人们生活方式的型塑作用。本研究根据健康生活方式模型将生活方式作为社会经济地位影响健康水平的中间机制,通过“中国综合社会调查（2005）”数据,分析中国民众健康不平等的形成过程。研究发现,同欧美主要发达国家一样,中国民众也存在明显的健康不平等,社会经济地位越高的人,其健康水平越高。社会经济地位主要通过健康生活方式影响人们的健康水平,其影响机制可以描述为,社会经济地位越高的人越倾向于拥有和维护健康生活方式,而健康生活方式又直接影响了人们的健康水平。     

族群与教育不平等:我国西部少数民族教育获得的一项实证研究

摘 要：本文通过梳理国内外有关族群（民族）分层的文献,认为有必要把“民族”纳入到中国的市场转型和社会分层理论框架之中,并从教育获得的角度对这一问题进行实证分析。影响中国少数民族教育获得的因素主要包括：城乡地域区隔、职业结构（阶层）、文化差异和国家政治进程（政策变迁）。基于对2004年中国西部抽样调查数据分析,作者发现：（1）基础教育阶段入学的族群差异主要由城乡差别和阶层不平等造成,族群不平等已不显著;（2）少数民族子女高中升学概率依然显著低于汉族,其原因部分在于城乡、地域和阶层因素,部分在于少数民族和汉族的文化差异（如语言环境）等因素;（3）与汉族教育不平等的代际传递模式不同,少数民族教育不平等的代际传承以资源转化模式为主,从而影响了不同族群在教育扩展中的获益程度。总体而言,虽然中国西部少数民族的教育获得仍显著落后于汉族,但其教育不平等更多地来自城乡和阶层之间的差异。     

“汽车梦”的社会建构:对《南方周末》（1998～2007）汽车广告内容的分析

今日中国,拥有汽车已成为大多数城市家庭幸福生活的一种理想。在“汽车梦”的社会建构过程中,作为一种消费意识形态的汽车广告在其中起了非常大的作用。本文以《南方周末》（1998～2007）为例,对近十年的汽车广告内容进行分析。文章认为,“个体享乐性想象认同”和“社会参照性成功认同”是汽车广告用来建构“汽车梦”的两个重要的“认同策略”,其影响作用远远超过了汽车广告中的“功用策略”,对广告内容分析的结果证明了本文所提出的研究假设。文章最后对“汽车梦”为什么在近十年得到极力建构的社会根源进行了探讨,并对其所带来的潜在的社会后果进行了深刻的反思。

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Prejudicial Attitudes Toward Older Adults May Be Exaggerated When People Feel Vulnerable to Infectious Disease: Evidence and Implications

Prejudice against elderly people ("ageism") is an issue of increasing social concern, but the psychological roots of ageism are only partially understood. Recent theorizing suggests that ageism may result, in part, from fallible cue-based disease-avoidance mechanisms. The perception of subjectively atypical physical features (including features associated with aging) may implicitly activate aversive semantic concepts (implicit ageism), and this implicit ageism is likely to emerge among perceivers who are especially worried about the transmission of infectious diseases. We report an experiment (N = 88) that provides the first empirical test of this hypothesis. Results revealed that implicit ageism is predicted by the interactive effects of chronic perceptions of vulnerability to infectious disease and by the temporary salience of disease-causing pathogens. Moreover, these effects are moderated by perceivers' cultural background. Implications for public policy are discussed .     

Ageism: A Review of Research and Policy Implications

The current literature on aging and ageism is summarized in support of a theoretical perspective that includes both the biological and the psychosocial components of these processes. Conceptual and methodological problems are identified in models that rely on a deficit approach to aging. We suggest that the biased responses of others foster older adults' stress-related emotional and hormonal responses—responses that may effectively reduce their social and cognitive competence. This negative feedback process ultimately acts in a stereotype-maintaining fashion. Implications are drawn for possible changes in social policy and institutional practices that may reduce or prevent the harmful effects of ageism. Examples are given of existing policies and practices that limit the lives of older adults (in the guise of protection), along with newly instituted policies and practices (including those at an international level) that place the welfare of older adults in the context of life course issues shared by all.     

Ageism Across the Lifespan: Towards a Self-Categorization Model of Ageing

This article uses this collection of articles on ageism as a springboard to discuss empirical lacunae in the literature as well as propose a self-categorization model of ageing phenomena. In particular, we argue that research would benefit from a more lifespan communication perspective. This includes the social origins of ageism that can be laid down early in development and perpetuated through collusive processes as individuals themselves age. Further, problems of interactively managing ageism, its intragenerational parameters, and the variable consequences of making death salient, are identified. Finally, we elaborate and illustrate a self-categorization model of ageing processes before critically examining panaceas proposed by others to ameliorate ageism.     

Volunteering and its impact on self-identity: results from Chaoyang District in Beijing

Ageism has a negative influence on older peoples’ self-identity and behaviour, forming stereotyped attitudes toward the older population that further aggravate ageism. Volunteerism may reduce ageism by improving older adults’ self-identification. This study examined the association between community volunteering and self-identity, and further explored the relationship between participation level and self-identity among Chinese older adults in Beijing. Logistic regression modelling was applied. After controlling for demographic characteristics, financial security and self-rated health, volunteerism was significantly associated with youthful self-identity. Older people who volunteer at least once a week for no more than two hours at a time are the least likely to identify themselves as being of old age.     

Ageism and Abuse in the Workplace: A New Frontier

The economic crisis in the United States has led to increased media coverage of older workers being laid off, forced to retire, or working longer than planned. Embedded in these reports are the intimations of workplace abuse. Social workers need to start taking into account ageism and abuse in the workplace as possible cooccurring issues to effectively implement policy, and organizational change that will address both issues. This brief article discusses ageism and abuse in the workplace using a human rights framework, the current state of the literature, and directions for future research.     

Ageism and Age Categorization

Two approaches to defining ageism are discussed. The significance of chronological age, both for bureaucratic procedures and for research, is considered. This demonstrates how birthdays are associated not just with changing status regarding employment and retirement, but also cultural transformations. The relevance of research based on age categories is critically discussed. It is argued that, while such research provides essential evidence of ageism, it inevitably tends to homogenize, particularly when open-ended "oldest" categories are used. The article concludes with a discussion of four alternative frameworks.     

A Terror Management Perspective on Ageism

In the present article, we present a theoretical perspective on ageism that is derived from terror management theory. According to the theory, human beings manage deeply-rooted fears about their vulnerability to death through symbolic constructions of meaning and corresponding standards of value. We extend this perspective to suggest that elderly individuals present an existential threat for the non-elderly because they remind us all that: (a) death is inescapable, (b) the body is fallible, and (c) the bases by which we may secure self-esteem (and manage death anxiety) are transitory. We review some recent empirical evidence in support of these ideas and then discuss possible avenues for combating ageism.     

Ageism: Prejudice Against Our Feared Future Self

For decades, researchers have discovered much about how humans automatically categorize others in social perception. Some categorizations—race, gender, and age—are so automatic that they are termed "primitive categories." As we categorize, we often develop stereotypes about the categories. Researchers know much about racism and sexism, but comparatively little about prejudicing and stereotyping based on age. The articles in this issue highlight the current empirical and theoretical work by researchers in gerontology, psychology, communication, and related fields on understanding the origins and consequences of stereotyping and prejudicing against older adults. With the aging baby boomer demographic, it is especially timely for researchers to work to understand how society can shed its institutionalized ageism and promote respect for elders.     

Ageism and Ageist Language Across the Life Span: Intimate Relationships and Non-intimate Interactions

The possible effects of ageist language and ageism on the structure and function of intimate and non-intimate relationships have received significant attention from social scientists. Recent research grounded in communication accommodation theory ( Giles, Mulac, Bradac, & Johnson, 1987 ), the communication predicament model of ageing ( Ryan, Giles, Bartolucci, & Henwood, 1986 ), the communication enhancement model of ageing ( Ryan, Meredith, MacLean, & Orange, 1995 ), and ageing and stereotype research by Hummert (1994) and colleagues ( Hummert & Mazloff, 2001 ; Hummert, Shaner, & Garstka, 1995 ) point toward the numerous consequences of both negative and positive attitudes toward ageing. Focusing specifically on health care settings, this article reviews recent theoretical positions and empirical findings that link ageist language and ageism to these positive and negative social consequences, and offers pragmatic suggestions and directions for future research .