Four-stage process model of the core factors of burnout: the role of work stressors and work-related resources

The impact of work stressors and work-related resources on emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, as the two core factors of burnout, is investigated. According to the German Action Regulation Theory work stressors are conceptualized as regulation problems that lead to work stress in terms of additional effort (e.g. working longer hours), increased intensity of effort (e.g. working at a faster pace), and risky action (e.g. by neglecting safety rules). Consequently, an extended process model consisting of objective work stressors, work stress, emotional exhaustion and depersonalization is proposed. Nurses from three general hospitals (N=482) provided data for evaluating this model. Complete mediation of work stress and emotional exhaustion were analysed by hierarchical regression analysis. The overall model was tested by structural equation analysis in two steps; in the first step the basic model was analysed while in the second step the model was extended by autonomy as a work-related resource. The process model could be confirmed with respect to: (1) the mediating function of work stress and emotional exhaustion, and with regard to (2) the direct impact of autonomy as a work-related resource on work stressors but not on emotional exhaustion and depersonalization. Methodological considerations and implications for work design and burnout prevention are discussed.     

Burnout, job stress and violent behaviour among Dutch police officers

Much has been published on burnout in the human services. However, despite the extensive literature on job stress in policing, burnout in police officers has rarely been studied. The present study examined stressors in police work, focusing specifically on the lack of reciprocity that officers experience in relations with civilians, colleagues and the police service. It also investigated the relationship between burnout and the attitudes of officers towards violence, as well as to their own use of violence. Dutch police officers (N = 358) completed a self-report questionnaire. The results showed that: (1) organizational stressors were more prevalent than task-related stressors; (2) compared to other service jobs, police officers report a particular profile on the three scales of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI)?a relatively low level of emotional exhaustion,an average level of depersonalization, and a high level of personal accomplishment; (3) burnout is associated with a lack of reciprocity between investments and outcomes in the relations that officers have with citizens, colleagues and their organization; and (4) burnout is positively related to attitudes towards use of violence and the use of violence during the officers' duty.     

Is there a relationship between burnout and objective performance? A critical review of 16 studies

Previous research has suggested that high levels of burnout lead to impaired functioning on the job. However, as this research has usually relied on self-reported performance, it is imperative to examine whether this association is also confirmed when using “objective” performance data (e.g., supervisor reports). This study reviewed previous research on the associations between burnout (exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment) and various types of objective performance. A systematic literature search identified 16 studies dealing with the burnout-performance relationship. These studies showed the wide variety of approaches that are used to study burnout and objective performance. Using data from these 16 studies, a meta-analysis was conducted to obtain mean correlations. The meta-analytical correlations between exhaustion and in-role behaviour (based on five studies), organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB; five studies), and customer satisfaction (two studies) were -.22, -.19, and -.55, respectively, underlining the practical relevance of burnout research for organizational performance. The evidence for the relationships between depersonalization, personal accomplishment, and performance was inconclusive. Future research should focus on valid indicators of job performance, should more often employ longitudinal designs and large samples, and should consider the theoretical basis for the study expectations more extensively.     

Are there causal relationships between the dimensions of the Maslach Burnout Inventory? A review and two longitudinal tests

Arising from interest concerning the possibility of causal relationships among the three components of the Maslach Burnout Inventory, several process models have been proposed for the development of burnout. The present paper first reviews the evidence in favour of the three most influential of these (Leiter and Maslach's model (1988); Golembiewski, Boudreau, Munzenrider, & Luo's (1996) phase model; and Lee and Ashforth's model (1993)). These three models, and our own model (which integrates of two of them, and includes feedback effects of depersonalization on emotional exhaustion) are then compared with each other using structural equation modelling, drawing on longitudinal data from two Dutch samples (total N=1185). The review revealed that none of the seven previous studies on this issue provided any convincing support for any particular causal order proposed so far. In contrast, our own study showed that high levels of exhaustion were associated with high levels of depersonalization over time across both samples. Further, higher levels of depersonalization led to higher levels of emotional exhaustion and lower levels of personal accomplishment. To our knowledge, the present research is the first to provide reliable longitudinal evidence for the conceptualization of burnout as a developmental process, although the effects are not large enough to be of practical use in the recognition of burnout.     

The Relationship Between Visioning Behaviours of Leaders and Follower Burnout

This paper investigates whether the perceived visioning behaviours of leaders influence the burnout process experienced by their followers. A structural equation model was used to examine these relationships using a sample of 480 senior managers from an Australian law-enforcement organization. Differences in the relationships between the two factors of visioning behaviour and aspects of burnout were identified. Inspirational motivation (concept-based) reduced the central factor of burnout, namely emotional exhaustion (psychological strain). Inspirational motivation (image-based) had a positive effect on personal accomplishment (self) and reduced depersonalization. The paper discusses the implications for leaders and followers and identifies directions for future research.     

Work factors related to stress and recurrent low back pain among Finnish planners and workers

Factors related both to the experience of prolonged stress and to recurrent low back pain were analysed by means of questionnaire responses of planners (n = 146) and workers (n = 315) in the Finnish metal industry. Job factors and overall satisfaction turned out to be related independently to stress in both groups. The strongest relation was found between stress and organizational job characteristics. Among the workers physical exhaustion and defects in ergonomy were also related to the experience of stress. Factors related to low back pain were mainly physical in origin, although organizational factors also made some contribution to such pain.     

Work-related and individual determinants of the three burnout dimensions

Applying the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory as a framework, this study among Dutch nurses (n=156) first tested whether work-related demands, resources and self-esteem were differentially associated with the three burnout dimensions (emotional exhaustion, personal accomplishment and depersonalization), respectively. In addition, the current study investigated the interrelationships between the burnout dimensions and the hypothesized moderating effect of self-esteem. As expected, emotional exhaustion was primarily associated with job demands (i.e. work overload) and-to a slightly lower extent-with resources such as social support and self-esteem. In contrast, but also according to the authors' predictions, depersonalization and personal accomplishment were not associated with job demands. Emotional exhaustion was, as predicted, an important correlate of depersonalization, whereas reduced personal accomplishment was negatively associated with self-esteem and with quality of work content, a resource. In line with earlier findings but contrary to some recent propositions, reduced personal accomplishment was positively associated with depersonalization. Finally, self-esteem did not moderate the relationships between the selected work factors and the burnout dimensions. The limitations of the study are discussed and directions for future research are proposed.     

Work stress and attentional difficulties: An initial study on burnout and cognitive failures

Professional burnout is a stress-related disorder, having mental exhaustion due to work stress as its most important characteristic. Burned out individuals also often complain about attentional problems. However, it is currently not clear whether such complaints are based on true cognitive deficits or whether they merely reflect the way burned out individuals rate their own cognitive performance. To confirm the cognitive complaints we used a cognitive failure questionnaire (CFQ) to assess the level of self-reported attentional difficulties in daily life. We also measured performance on tasks of sustained attention and response inhibition (the SART and the Bourdon-Wiersma Test). We compared three groups: (1) a group of 'burned out' individuals (n=13) who stopped working due to their symptoms and sought professional treatment; (2) teachers at a vocational training institute (n=16) who reported high levels of burnout symptoms but continued to work; and (3) teachers from the same institute (n=14) who reported no burnout symptoms. The level of burnout symptoms was found to be significantly related to the number of cognitive failures in daily life, and to inhibition errors and performance variability in the attentional tasks. To our knowledge, explicit tests of objective cognitive deficits in burned out individuals have not been conducted before. Consequently, this is the first study to indicate that burnout is associated with difficulties in voluntary control over attention and that the level of such difficulties varies with the severity of burnout symptoms.     

The association between job skill discretion,decision authority and burnout

This paper reports on the relationship between dimensions of control (skill discretion and decision authority) and burnout (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment) among 164 human service workers. It examines the differential influence of job demands, control (skill discretion and decision authority) and social support (supervisor, co-workers, others) on each burnout dimension. Then it examines the moderating effects of higher skill discretion, higher decision authority, and higher social support on burnout. Low skill discretion was found to be associated with high emotional exhaustion and depersonalization and low personal accomplishment. The effects of decision authority were not statistically significant. High job demands were associated with high emotional exhaustion only. Social support (supervisor, co-worker, and others) was not associated with burnout when demographic variables and job characteristics were controlled for. Neither dimension of control moderated the impact of high job demands on burnout. Social support did not moderate the impact of high demands, low skill discretion, or low decision authority on any burnout dimension. The full model explained 44% of the variance in emotional exhaustion, 25% in depersonalization, and 42% in personal accomplishment. Despite its limitations, the study suggests that the Job Demand-Control model may provide a useful theoretical foundation for the study of burnout, but that the control dimensions need to be evaluated independently since they appear to be differentially related to the burnout dimensions.     

Burnout in Greek teachers: Main findings and validity of the Maslach Burnout Inventory

The factorial structure of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach and Jackson 1986) was investigated in a sample of 220 Greek teachers and was found to be similar to that reported by Maslach and Jackson. A job satisfaction measure was employed for the investigation of the discriminant validity of the burnout measure. Correlations between job satisfaction and the three burnout dimensions were found to be low to moderate. It is suggested that the relationship and the degree of overlap between emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction require further examination. Greek teachers reported lower levels of burnout on the emotional exhaustion and depersonalization scales than teachers in other countries. Finally, younger teachers experienced more emotional exhaustion than older ones and primary education teachers experienced more personal accomplishment and less depersonalization than their counterparts in secondary education.     

The association between job skill discretion, decision authority and burnout

This paper reports on the relationship between dimensions of control (skill discretion and decision authority) and burnout (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment) among 164 human service workers. It examines the differential influence of job demands, control (skill discretion and decision authority) and social support (supervisor, co-workers, others) on each burnout dimension. Then it examines the moderating effects of higher skill discretion, higher decision authority, and higher social support on burnout. Low skill discretion was found to be associated with high emotional exhaustion and depersonalization and low personal accomplishment. The effects of decision authority were not statistically significant. High job demands were associated with high emotional exhaustion only. Social support (supervisor, co-worker, and others) was not associated with burnout when demographic variables and job characteristics were controlled for. Neither dimension of control moderated the impact of high job demands on burnout. Social support did not moderate the impact of high demands, low skill discretion, or low decision authority on any burnout dimension. The full model explained 44% of the variance in emotional exhaustion, 25% in depersonalization, and 42% in personal accomplishment. Despite its limitations, the study suggests that the Job Demand-Control model may provide a useful theoretical foundation for the study of burnout, but that the control dimensions need to be evaluated independently since they appear to be differentially related to the burnout dimensions.     

Burnout,job stress and violent behaviour among Dutch police officers

Much has been published on burnout in the human services. However, despite the extensive literature on job stress in policing, burnout in police officers has rarely been studied. The present study examined stressors in police work, focusing specifically on the lack of reciprocity that officers experience in relations with civilians, colleagues and the police service. It also investigated the relationship between burnout and the attitudes of officers towards violence, as well as to their own use of violence. Dutch police officers (N = 358) completed a self-report questionnaire. The results showed that: (1) organizational stressors were more prevalent than task-related stressors; (2) compared to other service jobs, police officers report a particular profile on the three scales of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI)?a relatively low level of emotional exhaustion,an average level of depersonalization, and a high level of personal accomplishment; (3) burnout is associated with a lack of reciprocity between investments and outcomes in the relations that officers have with citizens, colleagues and their organization; and (4) burnout is positively related to attitudes towards use of violence and the use of violence during the officers' duty.     

The conceptualization and measurement of burnout: Common ground and worlds apart

In this edition of Work & Stress, Kristensen and his colleagues critically discuss the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) and present an alternative, more general instrument to measure burnout that exclusively focuses on exhaustion. Here we critically examine their reasons for developing a new burnout measure, as well as the theoretical foundations of this measure. Whereas we agree with Kristensen et al.'s remarks concerning the availability and item wording of the MBI, we do not share their concerns regarding its theoretical underpinnings. In our view, burnout should be conceptualized as a primarily work-related syndrome of (at least) exhaustion and depersonalization/cynicism. The MBI would seem to fit that conceptualization very well.     

Burnout in Greek teachers: Main findings and validity of the Maslach Burnout Inventory

Abstract

The factorial structure of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach and Jackson 1986) was investigated in a sample of 220 Greek teachers and was found to be similar to that reported by Maslach and Jackson. A job satisfaction measure was employed for the investigation of the discriminant validity of the burnout measure. Correlations between job satisfaction and the three burnout dimensions were found to be low to moderate. It is suggested that the relationship and the degree of overlap between emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction require further examination. Greek teachers reported lower levels of burnout on the emotional exhaustion and depersonalization scales than teachers in other countries. Finally, younger teachers experienced more emotional exhaustion than older ones and primary education teachers experienced more personal accomplishment and less depersonalization than their counterparts in secondary education.     

Leader–member exchange and organizational dehumanization: The role of supervisor’s organizational embodiment

This research examined the negative relationship between leader–member exchange (LMX) and organizational dehumanization (i.e., employees’ perceptions that their organization treats them like tools), and specifically the consequences of this LMX–dehumanization relationship on employees’ emotional exhaustion, affective commitment, and voice behaviors. Further, given that supervisors act as representatives of the organization, we argued that these relationships would be stronger for employees identifying their supervisor with the organization (i.e., high supervisor’s organizational embodiment). Across two samples, results showed that high-quality LMX was negatively associated with organizational dehumanization. Further, organizational dehumanization was found to mediate the relationships between LMX and outcomes (i.e., emotional exhaustion, affective commitment, and voice behaviors). Finally, the mediation model was moderated by supervisor’s organizational embodiment. More specifically, the negative effects of LMX on organizational dehumanization and its subsequent outcomes were stronger when leaders were perceived as sharing many characteristics with their organization. This research expands the recent and scarce knowledge on the determinants, boundary conditions and outcomes of organizational dehumanization. Our findings suggest that interpersonal relationships at work and, in particular, very common supervisor-related perceptions should be considered when examining organizational dehumanization.     

Four-stage process model of the core factors of burnout: The role of work stressors and work-related resources

The impact of work stressors and work-related resources on emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, as the two core factors of burnout, is investigated. According to the German Action Regulation Theory work stressors are conceptualized as regulation problems that lead to work stress in terms of additional effort (e.g. working longer hours), increased intensity of effort (e.g. working at a faster pace), and risky action (e.g. by neglecting safety rules). Consequently, an extended process model consisting of objective work stressors, work stress, emotional exhaustion and depersonalization is proposed. Nurses from three general hospitals (N=482) provided data for evaluating this model. Complete mediation of work stress and emotional exhaustion were analysed by hierarchical regression analysis. The overall model was tested by structural equation analysis in two steps; in the first step the basic model was analysed while in the second step the model was extended by autonomy as a work-related resource. The process model could be confirmed with respect to: (1) the mediating function of work stress and emotional exhaustion, and with regard to (2) the direct impact of autonomy as a work-related resource on work stressors but not on emotional exhaustion and depersonalization. Methodological considerations and implications for work design and burnout prevention are discussed.     

Does job complexity mitigate the negative effect of emotion-rule dissonance on employee burnout?

In interactions with clients or patients, human service workers are at risk of experiencing discrepancies between felt and organizationally mandated emotions (i.e. emotion-rule dissonance). Given the documented detrimental effects of such discrepancies on employee strain, the present study investigated whether job complexity mitigates the relation between emotion-rule dissonance and employee burnout using data from a two-wave panel study of eldercare workers (N?=?583, 16-month time lag). Structural equation modelling revealed that emotion-rule dissonance at Time 1 preceded emotional exhaustion and depersonalization at Time 2. Beyond that, employees whose work offered job complexity were found to suffer less from emotional exhaustion and depersonalization when encountering discrepancies between felt and stipulated emotions compared to employees who conducted noncomplex work. Thus, designing complex tasks appears to be a crucial starting point for alleviating employee burnout in jobs that provoke emotion-rule dissonance.     

The behaviour of police officers in conflict situations: how burnout and reduced dominance contribute to better outcomes

Dominance plays an important part in police-civilian interactions. However, burnout is associated with a reduction in dominance, and this might, paradoxically, lead to more effective outcomes in conflict situations. There is a lack of knowledge about the effects of burnout in professional practice, and this multi-method study was conducted to better understand these dynamics. It is unique in that it combined self-reported burnout with observed behaviour in interactions with civilians. In this study, the relationships between the imbalance between demands and rewards, occupational burnout and police officers' behaviour in conflict situations (in terms of dominance and effectiveness) were examined. A questionnaire was used to assess job demands, rewards and burnout among 358 Dutch police officers. In addition, police officers' interactions with civilians were observed over 122 days. The results of structural equation modelling analyses showed that the imbalance between job demands and rewards was predictive of burnout (emotional exhaustion and depersonalization). Burnout, in its turn, predicted a decrease in dominant behaviour in conflict situations and, consequently, more effective conflict outcomes. These findings show that reduced dominance associated with burnout could in fact have positive consequences for professional behaviour in conflict situations. The benefits of reduced dominance in these situations should be taken into account in the training of professionals.     

Adult attachment styles and their relationship to burnout: a preliminary, cross-cultural investigation

While many studies have addressed the relationship between adult attachment styles and stress, so far no studies have addressed the relationship between attachment styles and burnout, which is thought often to characterize highly motivated individuals. Based on a psychodynamic existential perspective it was predicted that adult attachment styles would correlate with burnout: that there would be a negative correlation between secure attachment style and burnout and a positive correlation between insecure attachment styles (avoidant or anxious/ambivalent) and burnout. A pilot study was conducted in a sample of Israeli MBA students (N=41), nearly all of whom were in full-time employment. A further four studies were then conducted on Hungarian social studies students (N=751), Israeli dialysis nurses (N=216) and national samples of Israeli Jews (N=511) and Arabs (N=505). These studies supported this hypothesis. Finally, a follow-up study involving Israeli students (N=160), who described the importance of various work features and their strategies for coping with burnout-causing situations, helps to explain the findings. These results have a theoretical and a practical implication: burnout research and intervention should include greater emphasis on personal factors in addition to contextual factors.     

A test of the Maslach Burnout Inventory in three samples of healthcare professionals

Structural equation modelling with LISREL was used to investigate the factor structure of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). Emotional exhaustion was the most robust of the MBI's three factors, followed by depersonalization, while the personal accomplishment factor performed weakly. A new measurement model was developed in a sample of 197 nurses consisting of the emotional exhaustion and depersonalization dimensions, which were measured with five and two empirical MBI indicators, respectively. A test of invariance of the two-factor model across three samples (i.e. one calibration sample of nurses, and two validation samples consisting of hospital laboratory technicians and hospital managers with an effective sample size of 445) produced a good fit for the proposed two-factor model. Assessment of psychometric properties of the two-factor model produced (1) internal consistencies comparable to those reported in the literature for the MBI's originally specified emotional exhaustion and depersonalization scales, and (2) correlations with criterion variables that were all in the expected direction and magnitude, comparable to those produced by the originally specified scales. Theoretical implications for the use of the two-factor model in burnout research are discussed.