Europe and Security in the Caucasus

The Caucasus has become, as a long-lasting seismic wave, a framework of enormous and underestimated relevance and uncertainty. But even so, we have not to become prisoner of a short-term “cage”. There is neither strategy nor policy, diplomacy, or war that can exist without four fundamental intellectual preconditions: historical knowledge, security knowledge, ethnic-cultural-religious knowledge, and knowledge of the geopolitical, economic, and international order. These have been recalled by some crucial comments taken from a revisited version of Homer’s Iliad, recently published by the Italian writer Alessandro Baricco, to better focus the concepts. “Men have always flung themselves headlong into battle, like moths attracted towards a fatal flame. There is no fear or self-disgust which has managed to keep them away from that flame” – he wrote – “because it is within that flame that they have always found the only way of emerging from the shadows of life. For this reason, I believe that no one will stop searching for an alternative beauty to that represented by the war path or stop looking for a reason to about face. Sooner or later we will succeed in calling Achilles away from this fateful war. Neither fear nor horror will bring him home. It will be some other completely different beauty, more dazzling than his own and infinitely more humble”. We are, in fact, aware of examples of very poor governance skills at a global level as regards the management of medium-and long-term international order options. And the Caucasus is really a case study. For these many reasons Europe cannot avoid an effective “neighbourhood policy” with the Caucasian countries. In 2003, the European Union appointed a Special Representative for the region. Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia all have Partnership and Cooperation Agreements in force with the EU. Actions plans will be soon implemented and Europe represents by and large the preferred and more reliable interlocutor for the Caucasian region.     

Urban environment, spatial fragmentation and social segration in Latin America: Where does innovation lie?

To “review the urban question” in terms of sustainable development, the premise is formulated that improving infrastructures, equipment and services to preserve the natural and built urban environment is costly and generates expenses of all kinds—at economic and social levels. Without the introduction of equalisation mechanisms, these expenses will increase inequalities between different parts of the urban population.As confirmed by 2 Latin American case studies in Buenos Aires, Argentina, and La Paz Bolivia, the quality of urban environment depends directly on improving living conditions for the resident population. The aim is to assist the poor in developing a rubbish disposal service for the families living in the informal settlements of La Paz, or to extend water supply to the poorer areas on the outskirts of Buenos Aires. The collective benefits of these “innovations” are self-evident. However, understanding the environmental issues involved, and evaluating the social impact of these innovations, means examining what motivates their implementation.The first difficulty was in finding financial and economic information on the global cost of the new technologies, due to the lack of managerial culture and the discretional attitude of private enterprises and public administration.A second observation is that the social dimension of the environmental upgrading process in Latin America cities has been neglected by the main urban decision-makers. In all the contexts, the evolution of the projects’ implementation clearly demonstrates that social issues cannot be dissociated from political ones. Although the players themselves often find it difficult to estimate economic costs, these are nonetheless real and represent burdens that should be distributed equitably among the beneficiaries of services; but which are, in practice, often viewed in terms of profit. This leads to conflicts between different population groups, the political authorities and private intermediaries.Rather than viewing technological action as an unique “source” of innovation, we must consider its global dimension via the social practices it generates. On the other hand, we should reposition every specific event in its immediate environment and see how it reflects contemporary macro-social processes, in a world of “globalisation”.     

State Failure in the South Caucasus: Proposals for an Analytical Framework

The paper examines state failure in the South Caucasus. First, it determines a general system of 13 categories for analyzing the failure of states. Second, it applies these categories to the three internationally recognised South Caucasian states Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. The main focus lies on the state monopoly on the use of force in the entire territory of a country. If the government does not fulfil this condition, it faces a lot of severe consequences for many spheres of state performance and societal activity. In the South Caucasus, only Armenia managed to maintain the state monopoly on the use of force. In contrast, the establishment of separatist state entities (Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Nagorno Karabakh) led to the de facto collapse of the Georgian and Azerbaijani statehood. Thus, Georgia and Azerbaijan may be considered as failed states also due to the fact that in the foreseeable future there is no apparent chance to restore their territorial integrity.     

Learning from tradition: the planning of residential neighborhoods in a changing world

This paper analyses the community values of residential neighborhoods in the southwestern region of Saudi Arabia as an approach to a new theory in urbanism. The indigenous masterbuilders and tribemen incorporated planning decisions pertinent to climatic, cultural, social, economic and religious factors when designing physical elements in their built environment. This is what makes every traditional settlement in the southwest region of Saudi Arabia unique in terms of urban form and social structure. As a step to examining and evaluating the process of residential neighborhood development, three stages of practiced urbanism are discussed. These stages are labelled “vernacular”, “transitional” and “new vernacularism”. These are planning concepts used worldwide in the development of residential neighborhoods throughout history until the present. “New Vernacularism” is envisioned in this investigation as a design/planning objective implemented in most recently planned neighborhoods in Al-Horaidhah, Southwest Saudi Arabia. The achievement of successful urbanism underlies the political goals of urban planning practice. The Al-Horaidhah planning concept is conceived in the light of preservation of community values in neighborhood design/planning as a critical issue.The paper aims to investigate and reconcile the conflicts in the planning of residential neighborhoods in a changing world. The conflicts are restricted between retaining traditions of architecture, urban design and planning with the necessary social, economic, and technological changes in urban formation, mainly, the vernacular and modern. The paper illustrates the concept “New Vernacularism” by presenting Al-Horaidhah scheme as a model for community development in three administrative regions along the Red Sea coastline. “New Vernacularism” as a planning concept looks at the community development in Al-Horaidhah in the light of Sharicah, the Islamic Law and Customary norms by emphasizing the importance of the involvement of local residents in the planning process and gives suggestions of how this might best be achieved and later implemented into new communities.     

Towards a Common Surface Transport Policy for South East Europe

This paper addresses the all-important issue of forming a common transport policy for South East European countries with primary objective this of the re-balancing the future traffic flows towards more use of rail and maritime transport (including inland waterways). First, the elements of the new EU transport policy that address this issue are mentioned. Then, the paper examines in detail the specific factors that apply in the region of South East Europe and which may alter or influence the expected results of the application of these factors. The factors examined are the following: improving the infrastructure of the railways, various measures of promoting transport by sea and inland waterways, turning “intermodality” into reality, building the trans-European transport networks, adopting a common policy for charging for transport, utilizing research and innovation technology, implementing medium and long-term transport related environmental objectives, implementing transport-related “soft” measures.The last section of the paper examines in more detail the status and prospects of improvement of two major rail axes in the area, the axes nr. X and nr. IX. This is given as an example of the kind of actions needed to improve rail infrastructure and the involved substantial efforts that are necessary.     

Assessing outcomes for sufferers of severe mental disorder: A conceptual framework and review

A conceptual framework is presented for classifying the outcomes of services for sufferers of severe mental disorders. The proposed classification framework contains three dimensions: (a) the respondent type; (b) the social context; and (c) the domain of treatment outcomes. Respondent types include the client, the family, the extended social network, the clinician and the scientist. Social contexts include the individual, the family, work/school and the broader community. Domains of treatment outcome include “clinical status,” “functional status,” “life satisfaction and fulfillment,” and “safety and welfare.” This multidimensional framework is used to organize an illustrative review of existing outcome measures. It is concluded that: (a) measures of safety and welfare raise important social and policy questions and these measures require considerable development in order for utility to be realized; (b) although a good beginning has been made, more attention needs to be focused on defining and measuring “life satisfaction and fulfillment” and combining this domain with others to produce “well being” or “quality of life” scales; (c) the functional status area requires additional research and development especially when measurement is conducted in contexts other than work/school; and (d) although measures of clinical status are relatively well developed, the family perspective and context must be integrated into these measures.     

Attachements indésirables, attachements acceptables : autour d’un échange de seringues en prison

To inquire into innovation in public policy, attention is focused on the work done by a group that proposed an innovative project for “preventing” drug-use in a prison in Luxembourg. After several events and reversals, the final arrangements, which brought together disparate interests, was grounded in the contingent attachment of various persons to the leading role played by a general practitioner and the “permanent attachment” of authorized needles distributed in a case. In a situation where attempts to work out a theory in terms of “positions”, “power” and “control” would have difficulty coming up with a convincing explanation of this surprising process, preference is given to describing this innovation in terms of “passages” and “attachments”.     

The myths and politics of housing in Hong Kong: The controversy over the demolition of the Hunghom Estate

This paper explores the post-handover surge of civic activism in Hong Kong by examining the controversy over the demolition of the Hunghom Estate—a government subsidized housing project that was sold to private developers during a recession in early 2004. In a departure from “business as usual,” the high-profile demolition was stopped 10 months later after a series of protests mobilized by environmental activists. This result was widely hailed as a triumph of corporate responsibility and environmental consciousness. By tracing the competing narratives over the course of the controversy, this paper attempts to elucidate this “success” story by revealing the inherent conflicts between different stakeholders, and how these narratives nevertheless share and sustain a number of long-held myths about Hong Kong's economy and housing market. It argues that these myths obscure the ongoing political choices of an interventionist administration, which maintains legitimacy by tightly controlling urban development and securing support from powerful economic actors. By connecting the various claims of the present case with historic discourses of the territory, the paper aims to shed light on the power relations embedded in the development policies that characterized Hong Kong over the colonial period, and which continues to shape the practices of housing in the present.     

Why a fixed workweek?

The main goal of this article is to explain why the fixed workweek appeared. To this purpose we differentiate between “jobs” and “hours per job”. We consider an economy where hours and number of workers are substitutes in production but in which hiring a worker entails a fixed cost plus a variable cost per hour worked. As a consequence, firms would like workers to work as many hours as possible. In an unregulated economy, workers work more hours that they would like to at the on-going wage rate. This situation characterizes the economy of today’s industrialized countries in the 19th century.     

Alcohol’s Effects on Video Lottery Terminal (VLT) Play Among Probable Pathological and Non-Pathological Gamblers

This study tested whether alcohol increases behaviors associated with video lottery terminal (VLT) play, particularly among probable pathological gamblers. Forty-four regular VLT players were designated either probable pathological gamblers or non-pathological gamblers on the basis of scores on the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS); [Lesieur & Blume (1997). American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1184–1188] Gamblers from each SOGS category were randomly assigned to either a moderately intoxicating alcohol dose or a control beverage condition (n = 11 per cell in the 2 × 2 between-subjects design). Following beverage consumption and absorption, participants played a video poker VLT game for up to 30 minutes. Four behaviors were measured: “power-bets” (doubling bet after viewing only two cards of the five-card poker hand); total money spent; mean bet magnitude; and number of minutes played. Alcohol increased time spent playing and rate of power-bets, particular among the probable pathological gamblers. Post hoc analyses revealed that alcohol also influenced the proportion of losing hands played––increasing them among the probable pathological gamblers while decreasing them among the non-pathological gamblers. Clinical and policy implications of the findings are discussed.     

The peri-urban fringe: Europe's forgotten rural areas

The EC White Paper — The Future of Rural Society — identifies three “standard problems” of rural areas, but the first, which characterises areas associated with “the pressures of modern development”, receives little attention in the remainder of the document. This paper explains why it is particularly important that the peri-urban areas are not ignored in the development of rural policy. In the first place, the problems of these areas are inextricably linked to those of areas of rural decline and if such links are ignored the resulting partial analysis of rural problems may cause some important policy-options to be overlooked. Second, there continue to be pockets of disadvantage within the peri-urban areas where deprivation is likely to be increased by close proximity to an affluent majority. Finally, the paper analyses the Rural Community Strategy for Berkshire, a nonstatutory document prepared by a group drawn from governmental, quasi-governmental and non-governmental organisations in one peri-urban area of southern England. This shows that while the broad agenda of rural policy issues (covering employment, housing and services), may be very similar to that found in areas of rural decline the rationale for intervention is somewhat different, and transport issues may lie at the heart of the “standard problem” of these areas.     

Niveau de comportement et prise de conscience en psychologie economique

Mental level and grasp of consciousness in economic behaviour. In economic psychology mental level is one of the most useful parameters. This notion provides a solution for the construction of a general model, and can also be applied to several specific questions. The idea of grasp of consciousness is the “internal” or ‘subjective” aspect of these studies relating to economic efficiency. But, in this context, interdisciplinary research is necessary and this has been made possible by the many surveys carried out, among others, by the Laboratory of Economic Psychology of the University of Strasbourg during the last twenty-seven years, in different countries of Europe, Africa and Asia.The concept of mental level allows utilisation of models: simplication, synthesis of quantitative and qualitative factors, and the careful selection of statistical and psychological data are necessary for a positive work. In each country we consider the situation of groups, such as provinces, corporations, enterprises and families, and the notation of mental level explains the principles of behaviour. We observe important thresholds of dynamism between these groups.Grasp of consciousness is a notion that enables further explanation: here, studies and observations are related with the mechanism of degrees of rationality. If the level of consciouness is low, the judgement includes little information, the choices and the forecase do not take into account all the factors. Economic growth and equilibrium are not satisfactory. It is possible to give many examples of this situation. Surveys in Greece and Portugal show the importance of the crossin of thresholds. “Economic horizon” is larger and information better after the period of transition.A second point concerns relative dépendance of this parameter upon external factors (stimuli). When the level of consciousness is not sufficient and rationality weak, influence of stimuli is strong. On the contrary, with high levels, considerations of personal interest are more powerful. Economic Psychology defines schemes of behaviour in the different situations. Surveys of Economic Psychology make use of methods adapted to qualitative investigations. These methods bring together measures for certain factors and notations for others. With questions on the past, present and future foreseeable life of the firm, it is possible, through good research, to determine the main features concerning an enterprise. For larger groups and for countries, the methods are parallel. Forecasting and better diagnosis are possible and qualitative surveys are good technique for improvement of applied economy.     

From the lab to the front line: How individual biogerontologists navigate their contested field

This paper infuses a new perspective into scholarship on anti-aging science: the experiences of individual scientists as they have entered and navigated this controversial field. We draw on in-depth interviews with 43 prominent biogerontologists to accomplish three objectives. First, we highlight key factors that draw scientists into biogerontology – especially the unique and complex puzzles posed by aging. Second, we examine how biogerontologists define themselves and their research in relation to “anti-aging” science – particularly how scientists distance themselves from the tarnished history of the field and employ powerful language to distinguish legitimate from illegitimate scholarship, and science from industry. Finally, we explore how individual scientists manage any social, religious, and ethical objections to conducting “anti-aging” research — and the repertoire of responses they use to simultaneously dismantle objections and reinforce the legitimacy of their science. The analyses reveal how much is ultimately at stake for these individual scientists on the front line.     

Conflict of interest in the evaluation and dissemination of "model" school-based drug and violence prevention programs

Conflict of interest refers to a set of conditions in which professional judgment concerning the validity of research might be influenced by a secondary competing interest. The competing interest that has received most attention in the literature addressing the prevalence and effects of such conflicts on the practice of empirical research has been that of financial relationships between investigators and research sponsors. The potential for conflicts of interest to arise in the evaluation of drug prevention programs was raised by Moskowitz in this journal in 1993, but to date there has been no attempt made to estimate the scope of this problem. The present study addressed this issue using a sample of “model” school-based drug and violence prevention interventions by first, identifying the types or relationships that exist between program developers and program distributors, and, second, by assessing how many of the evaluations of these programs published in peer-reviewed journals had been conducted by the developers of the programs compared to independent evaluation teams. The data presented indicate that there are relatively few published evaluations that do not involve program developers and that there are few instances in which there is complete separation between the program developer and program distributor. Using the open systems model of the Institute of Medicine Committee on Research Integrity as a framework, it is argued that the culture and norms of the program developer and those of the program evaluator are fundamentally distinct and therefore failure to separate these roles produces high potential for conflict of interest to arise.     

Institutionalization of Migration Policy Frameworks in Armenia,Azerbaijan and Georgia

This article is a comparative study of the institutionalization of the migration policy frameworks of post‐Soviet states Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. All three countries share common historical legacies: a Soviet past, wars and conflicts, unemployment, high emigration, and commitment to integration into European bodies. To what extent do the migration policies of these three countries (driven by contextual forces, i.e. domestic challenges) address country‐specific migration dynamics? Or are they imposed by the European Union? In which dimensions have the national policies on migration of Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia evolved, and around which issues have they converged or diverged? Have these trends led to an integration of migration policymaking at the regional level in the South Caucasus?     

The Concepts of University Lifelong Learning Provision in Europe

The organizational and conceptual models of the university lifelong learning provision in Europe are analyzed. Unexpectedly, common terms such as “lifelong learning” and “university continuing education” are found not to be well defined, and there is a substantial lack of statistical data on both. The underlying concepts of the EU member states differ significantly and their efforts seem to be partly mismatched. One of the main common denominators is the inseparable connection with e-learning and/or open and distance learning. Modern information technology support appears to be the foundation of future efficient and cost-effective lifelong learning.     

Entrepreneurs in the rural environment

Change in rural activities is frequently seen as: (1) reaction to changes in other areas and sectors, and (2) negative. This downplays the role and importance of entrepreneurs, both farm and non-farm, in sustaining the vitality of rural areas. The notion of entrepreneur can be extended to entrepreneurial activity by other people, e.g. local government activity, which is an integral part of rural community economic development. Both the entrepreneur and the quasi-entrepreneur in local government are critical leaders in urban fringes and other rural areas alike. Their activity in an area is partly dependent upon the broader political, social and economic environment which influences: (1) the need to change and (2) whether any “benefit” can be derived from entrepreneurial activity. A framework is presented in this paper to place entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial activity into the context first, of decision-taking generally in the rural environment, and second, of the broader “enabling” environment. It is argued that constraints originating in this broader environment are often necessary, but they may have unforeseen side-effects in discouraging innovation. Changes in such constraints or in the manner in which they are implemented may be a necessary ingredient to maintain rural vitality through encouraging entrepreneurial activity.     

Regulation of technology adoption when individuals pursue multiple utility

Should regulatory approaches to technology adoption in U.S. agriculture be command and control in character, or use economic incentives? This paper addresses this question while testing the “I and We” multiple utility model and suggesting socioeconomic theory as a conceptual framework. Results show that one perhaps cannot understand farmer response to regulation without considering norms. Introducing the “We-utility” notion into the standard “I-utility” model adds explanatory power. Government's regulatory role needs to be shifted to first providing the impetus for action and then to helping in the evolution of norms, no matter which approach is used. The proposed socioeconomic theory goes beyond standard microeconomics by including both the idea of norms and that of positive freedoms, and thus introducing ethical considerations into economic analysis.