Two decades of family change: secondary analysis of continuous government surveys

"Secondary analysis of General Household Survey and Labour Force Survey data shows how the structure of families in Great Britain has changed over the last 20 years. Dependent children are now less likely to be living in a couple family and more likely to be living with a lone mother who is either single or divorced. Families in simple households with just two generations have become more common over time. Lone mothers are now more likely to be living in simple households. The paper also considers how the number and ages of dependent children are associated with family and household type. Log-linear models are used both to smooth the data and to predict family structure in the year 2000. Gaps in our knowledge about current family structures are discussed together with implications of the findings for social policy."     

社会保障对城乡家庭消费的影响研究

 本文基于CGSS《中国城乡居民生活综合调查》2006年的家庭微观调查数据分析了我国城乡家庭消费支出的分布特征,按有无社会保障把城乡家庭分别分为两组,利用分位数回归方法分别研究了不同消费层次上,社会保障对城乡家庭消费的影响,并利用反事实分析与分位数分解方法对这两组家庭消费差异进行研究。主要结论有：有社会保障家庭人均消费要高于无社会保障家庭人均消费,消费收入弹性呈“几”字型,有社会保障和无社会保障家庭的消费差异主要是由于收入、地产财富等差异造成的。最后,提出了具有针对性的政策建议。     

ESTIMATING WITHIN-HOUSEHOLD CONTACT NETWORKS FROM EGOCENTRIC DATA

Acute respiratory diseases are transmitted over networks of social contacts. Large-scale simulation models are used to predict epidemic dynamics and evaluate the impact of various interventions, but the contact behavior in these models is based on simplistic and strong assumptions which are not informed by survey data. These assumptions are also used for estimating transmission measures such as the basic reproductive number and secondary attack rates. Development of methodology to infer contact networks from survey data could improve these models and estimation methods. We contribute to this area by developing a model of within-household social contacts and using it to analyze the Belgian POLYMOD data set, which contains detailed diaries of social contacts in a 24-hour period. We model dependency in contact behavior through a latent variable indicating which household members are at home. We estimate age-specific probabilities of being at home and age-specific probabilities of contact conditional on two members being at home. Our results differ from the standard random mixing assumption. In addition, we find that the probability that all members contact each other on a given day is fairly low: 0.49 for households with two 0-5 year olds and two 19-35 year olds, and 0.36 for households with two 12-18 year olds and two 36+ year olds. We find higher contact rates in households with 2-3 members, helping explain the higher influenza secondary attack rates found in households of this size.     

On the quality of reinterview data with application to the Current Population Survey

"The [U.S.] Current Population Survey (CPS) reinterview sample consists of two subsamples: (a) a sample of CPS households is reinterviewed and the discrepancies between the reinterview responses and the original interview responses are reconciled for the purpose of obtaining more accurate responses..., and (b) a sample of CPS households, nonoverlapping with sample (a), is reinterviewed 'independently' of the original interview for the purpose of estimating simple response variance (SRV). In this article a model and estimation procedure are proposed for obtaining estimates of SRV from subsample (a) as well as the customary estimates of SRV from subsample (b).... Data from the CPS reinterview program for both subsamples (a) and (b) are analyzed both (1) to illustrate the methodology and (2) to check the validity of the CPS reinterview data. Our results indicate that data from subsample (a) are not consistent with the data from subsample (b) and provide convincing evidence that errors in subsample (a) are the source of the inconsistency."     

理性习惯偏好与居民消费行为

 经济体制改革以来，随着经济的持续快速增长中国城镇居民已经习惯于生活水平不断提高。在这样的环境中，如果一个家庭当年消费的数量和上一年相同，其幸福感就会打折扣；另一方面，消费还具有外部性，如果与他人相比自己的消费水平降低了，消费者的效用也会受到损失。因此，理性消费者的决策目标是保持消费长期稳定增长而不仅仅是消费在各个时期的均匀分配。利用1978-2008年中国26个省（直辖市）的城镇住户调查数据得到的实证分析结果显示：消费者的习惯偏好与制度环境有关。受传统计划体制影响，1990前中国城镇居民的习惯偏好具有明显的“短视”特征。1990-2008年的估计结果则支持了理性习惯形成假设。即内部习惯形成导致了边际消费倾向明显下降，并且消费攀比是理性的。     

Adjustment of provisional mortality series: the dynamic linear model with structured measurement errors

The authors "consider the problem of adjusting provisional time series using a bivariate structural model with correlated measurement errors. Maximum likelihood estimators and a minimum mean squared error adjustment procedure are derived for a provisional and final series containing common trend and seasonal components. The model also includes measurement errors common to both series and errors that are specific to the provisional series. [The authors] illustrate the technique by using provisional data to forecast ischemic heart disease mortality."     

Where do people live?

"Population counts for small areas, as in a census, are directly affected by the rules that determine where each person is to be counted. Clear rules are needed for groups such as migratory workers, persons whose work requires long absences from the family home, homeless persons, military personnel, persons maintaining two or more homes, persons in hospitals, correctional, or other institutions, crews of sea-going vessels, and others. The rules may have a bearing on family and household statistics and statistics on socioeconomic status as well as on counts of numbers of people."     

On future household structure

Summary.  We develop a method for computing probabilistic household forecasts which quantifies uncertainty in the future number of households of various types in a country. A probabilistic household forecast helps policy makers, planners and other forecast users in the fields of housing, energy, social security etc. in taking appropriate decisions, because some household variables are more uncertain than others. Deterministic forecasts traditionally do not quantify uncertainty. We apply the method to data from Norway. We find that predictions of future numbers of married couples, cohabiting couples and one-person households are more certain than those of lone parents and other private households. Our method builds on an existing method for computing probabilistic population forecasts, combining such a forecast with a random breakdown of the population according to household position (single, cohabiting, living with a spouse, living alone etc.). In this application, uncertainty in the total numbers of households of different types derives primarily from random shares, rather than uncertain future population size. A similar method could be applied to obtain probabilistic forecasts for other divisions of the population, such as household size, health or disability status, region of residence and labour market status.     

Oversampling Through Households or Other Clusters: Comparisons of Methods for Weighting the Oversampled Elements

If a subgroup of a population is of particular interest in a survey, researchers may wish to increase the yield of this special subgroup by oversampling. One procedure for oversampling through households, or other clusters, is to divide the households into two segments: the main sample and the oversample (for which only members of the special group are eligible). Members of the oversampled special group come from both segments. This paper describes three methods for weighting the members of the special group. The household method treats the segments as strata and weights according to the proportion of households in each segment. The yield method uses weights according to the yield of special-group members in the two segments. The combined probability method provides a Horvitz-Thompson estimator using the sum of the probabilities that a person will be selected through either segment. Simulations show that the yield method produces estimates with variance lower than those of the household method. The combined probability method appears to be even more efficient. The difference in precision between the methods is small for estimates from the total sample but the household method can be markedly worse than the other two methods for estimates from the oversampled special group (over 40% greater variance in one scenario). Results from a community sample illustrate the comparisons. Because the household method can be much less efficient it should not be used.     

潜在流动性约束与城镇家庭消费

笔者认为,收入不平等与家庭消费的关系与信贷约束程度以及家庭社会地位偏好有关。住房是典型的地位性商品,收入差距扩大时,人们为了维持或提高现有的相对地位会努力改善居住条件,住房攀比最终会导致全社会住房面积标准提高和房价上涨。在信贷缺乏的环境中,购房标准提高和房价上涨意味着家庭未来遭遇流动性约束的风险加大,为此,家庭在增加购房预算的同时会抑制日常消费。利用2010年、2012年和2014年的微观跟踪调查数据所做的实证分析支持了我们的观点：（1）周围人群的住房面积的扩大,会促使家庭选择购买更大的房子。并且,攀比效应对住房需求的刺激作用明显大于房价上涨对住房需求的抑制作用。（2）家庭平均住房面积扩大和房价上涨都与收入不平等引发的住房攀比有关。（3）收入不平等对城镇家庭消费皆有拉动作用和抑制作用。（4）潜在流动性约束对家庭消费的抑制作用与家庭地位等级的高低有关。     

Mixed model for analyzing geographic variability in mortality rates

"A mixed model is proposed for the analysis of geographic variability in mortality rates. In addition to demographic parameters and random geographic parameters, the model includes additional random-effects parameters to adjust for extra-Poisson variability. The model uses a gamma-Poisson distribution with a random scale parameter having an inverse gamma prior. An empirical Bayes approach is used to estimate relative risks for geographic regions and annual rates for demographic groups within each region. Lung cancer in Missouri is used to motivate and illustrate the procedure."     

A Dynamic Latent Model for Poverty Measurement

The main purpose of this paper is the longitudinal analysis of the poverty phenomenon. By interpreting poverty as a latent variable, we are able to resort to the statistical methodology developed for latent structure analysis. In particular, we propose to use the mixture latent Markov model which allows us to achieve two goals: (i) a time-invariant classification of households into homogenous groups, representing different levels of poverty; (ii) the dynamic analysis of the poverty phenomenon which highlights the distinction between transitory and permanent poverty situations. Furthermore, we exploit the flexibility provided by the model in order to achieve the measurement of poverty in a multidisciplinary framework, using several socio-economic indicators as covariates and identifying the main relevant factors which influence permanent and transitory poverty. The analysis of the longitudinal data of the Survey on Households Income and Wealth of the Bank of Italy provides the identification of two groups of households which are characterized by different dynamic features. Moreover, the inclusion of socio-economic covariates such as level of education, employment status, geographical area and residence size of the household head shows a direct association with permanent poverty.     

Household Consumption Equivalence Scales: Some Estimates from New Zealand Household Expenditure and Income Survey Data

This paper uses data on expenditures and incomes of New Zealand households of different demographic profiles to construct equivalence scales. The scales are useful in estimating the relative levels of spending required by the households to attain a given level of utility. Preference consistent 'complete demand systems' are analyzed to test for the demographic effects on the consumption patterns of households. Equivalence scales for respect to specific items of consumption as well as total consumption are worked out from the observed consumption behaviour of households. The results are largely in line with those found in existing similar studies both in Australia and New Zealand. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first attempt at constructing equivalence scales with New Zealand household budget data in the framework of hypothesized utility maximizing behaviour of households.     

Some coverage error models for census data

"Alternative models are presented for representing coverage error in surveys and censuses of human populations. The models are related to the capture-recapture models used in wildlife applications and to the dual-system models employed in the vital events literature. Estimation methodologies are discussed for one of the coverage error models." After a discussion of the theory underlying the methodology, "distinctions are made between two kinds of error: (a) sampling error and (b) error associated with the model. An example involving data from the 1980 U.S. census is presented. The problem of adjusting census and survey data for coverage error is also discussed."     

Household debt and financial assets: evidence from Germany, Great Britain and the USA

Summary.  We explore the determinants of debt, financial assets and net worth at the household level by using survey data for Germany, Great Britain and the USA. To identify which households are potentially vulnerable to adverse changes in the economic environment, we also explore the determinants of a range of measures of financial pressure: the probability that a household has negative net worth; the debt-to-income ratio; mortgage income gearing; the saving-to-income ratio. Our empirical findings suggest that the poorest and the youngest households are the most vulnerable to adverse changes in their financial circumstances.     

Methods for projecting private households

"Although there exists a reasonable number of methods for projecting the number of private households, only a few of them are used in practice. The reason for this discrepancy is...analysed. All important methods which had been developed until now will be presented, focusing on their assumptions and the data needed." (SUMMARY IN ENG)     

Household budget-share distributions and welfare implications: an application of multivariate distributional statistics

In this paper the consequences of considering the household ‘food share’ distribution as a welfare measure, in isolation from the joint distribution of itemized budget shares, is examined through the unconditional and conditional distribution of ‘food share’ both parametrically and nonparametrically. The parametric framework uses Dirichlet and Beta distributions, while the nonparametric framework uses kernel smoothing methods. The analysis, in a three commodity setup (‘food’, ‘durables’, ‘others’), based on household level rural data for West Bengal, India, for the year 2009–2010 shows significant underrepresentation of households by the conventional unconditional ‘food share’ distribution in the higher range of food budget shares that correspond to the lower end of the income profile. This may have serious consequences for welfare measurement.     

Imputation of Household Survey Data Using Linear Mixed Models

Mixed models are regularly used in the analysis of clustered data, but are only recently being used for imputation of missing data. In household surveys where multiple people are selected from each household, imputation of missing values should preserve the structure pertaining to people within households and should not artificially change the apparent intracluster correlation (ICC). This paper focuses on the use of multilevel models for imputation of missing data in household surveys. In particular, the performance of a best linear unbiased predictor for both stochastic and deterministic imputation using a linear mixed model is compared to imputation based on a single level linear model, both with and without information about household respondents. In this paper an evaluation is carried out in the context of imputing hourly wage rate in the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics of Australia Survey. Nonresponse is generated under various assumptions about the missingness mechanism for persons and households, and with low, moderate and high intra‐household correlation to assess the benefits of the multilevel imputation model under different conditions. The mixed model and single level model with information about the household respondent lead to clear improvements when the ICC is moderate or high, and when there is informative missingness.     

Modeling household fertility decisions: a nonlinear simultaneous probit model

"This article proposes new methods for modeling household fertility decisions....Specifically, we model the trivariate distribution of wife's stated desire for additional children, husband's stated desire for additional children, and subsequent fertility. In the model, the stated desire of the husband (wife) is viewed as an indicator of the husband's (wife's) latent disposition toward subsequent fertility. The husband's (wife's) disposition is allowed to depend on the wife's (husband's) disposition. The two dispositions are then combined to generate the couple's propensity for subsequent fertility. We show how such models can be estimated and tested and how the parameters can be used to assess the relative influence of each partner on the propensity." The model is tested using U.S. data from the Princeton Fertility Study for the 1950s and 1960s. The results indicate that "both husband's disposition score and wife's disposition score affect the propensity score, and, under some additional assumptions, that husbands and wives have equal relative influence on the propensity."     

中国城乡居民自感健康与社会分层——基于（CGSS）2008年的一项实证研究

基于中国综合社会调查（CGSS）2008年的数据,利用多元线性回归模型检验社会经济地位等客观社会分层变量和阶层意识等主观社会分层变量对居民自感健康的影响。研究表明：居民的受教育程度、个人年收入、家庭年收入等客观社会分层变量和阶层意识、自评家庭经济地位等主观社会分层变量与其自感健康水平显著相关。同时,年龄、性别、政治面貌等个体特征变量能较好地解释居民自感健康的差异。