“She Was Stomping on Everything That We Used to Think of as a Family”: Communication and Turning Points in Cohabiting (Step)Families

This study investigates the relationship between joint and sole physical custody arrangements and parental hostility, conflict, and communication in divorced families. Data from both self-report and clinical ratings from 121 families were analyzed using hierarchical multiple regression in order to determine predictors of parental hostility, conflict, and communication 2-3 years after the separation. Family structures variables such as ages and numbers of children, as well as SES differences between parents were included in the model. Results show that where both parents have more frequent access to their children, they communicate with each other more frequently, but also experience greater hostility and conflict in their relationship. A second result indicates that extreme levels of parental verbal or physical abuse is predicted by extreme abuse during the marital years and is not related to custody or visitation arrangements, nor to family structure variables 2-3 years post-separation.     

Timing of Parental Separation and Attachment to Parents in Adolescence: Results of a Prospective Study from Birth to Age 16

Using prospective longitudinal data from the Christchurch Health and Development Study (CHDS), this paper examines the effects of parental separation on the quality of adolescents' attachment to parents and their perceptions of parental care and overprotection during childhood. Exposure to parental separation was significantly associated with lower attachment to parents in adolescence and more negative perceptions of maternal and paternal care and protection during childhood. When examined in relation to the developmental timing of first separation, a linear relationship between the age at first separation and later parental attachment and perceived parent–child relations was found. The younger the age of the child at the time of separation, the lower their subsequent parental attachment and the more likely they were to perceive both their mother and father as less caring and more overprotective. No gender differences were found in children's responses to parental separation. These findings persisted after control for the confounding effects of family social background, marital conflict, parenting, child behavior, and remarriage. Results supported the importance of the early childhood years for the development of a secure and enduring attachment relationship between children and their parents.     

Parents in child custody disputes: Why are they disputing?

Since 2000, the number of custody disputes has increased in Sweden. Living in the midst of a parental conflict places the children under great stress. Research on parental conflicts is predominantly theoretical; thus, there is a need for empirical studies to better understand the problems and needs of the children and parents. This article examines parental disputes regarding custody, residence, and access for children, and aims to understand the characteristics of the conflicts behind the disputes. The article is primarily based on qualitative analyses of court documents. The results show that the majority of the parents’ conflicts are defined as conflicts of values, stemming from concern about the other parent’s capability to care for younger children.     

Postdivorce Coparenting and Children’s Well-Being in Hong Kong

This article reports a survey study on postdivorce coparenting and its relationships with children’s well-being in Hong Kong. Based on data from 142 resident parents and 84 children, the results revealed that interparental conflict and triangulation of children within parental conflict adversely affected children’s well-being, whereas interparental support fostered children’s well-being. Parental communication and interparental support coexisted simultaneously with parent conflicts. These conflicting effects make postdivorce coparenting a mixed blessing for children. Fortunately, residential parent–child intimacy and quality parenting by both parents protected children’s well-being from the effects of negative relational dynamics. Promoting postdivorce coparenting should always accompany effective interventions in conflict resolution, the renegotiation of growth-enhancing boundaries among family members, the support of parental functioning and individual recovery of both parents, and the facilitation of noncompetitive parental involvement of nonresident parents.     

‘Quality’ contact post-separation/divorce: A review of the literature

Concern with the impact on children of discontinued parent-child relationships following parental separation or divorce has resulted in a depth of empirical knowledge in the maintenance of those relationships through the medium of ‘contact’. While research consistently demonstrates that post-separation/divorce parenting arrangements work best when they are informally arranged between two parents who are committed to making those plans work in the interests of their children, the emotive nature of the separation/divorce experience for many families may demand formal and legal regulation. Research with families involved in post-separation/divorce contact fails to identify a solitary magic ingredient that makes contact work or not work; rather a wide range of factors which operate interactively, interdependently and dynamically, with the attitudes, actions and interactions of the key family players shaping contact and determining its quality. This paper provides a critical review of the international literature on post-separation/divorce contact, identifying and reflecting on the key ingredients or factors central to the successful occurrence of ‘quality contact’. Drawing on the literature reviewed, a framework consisting of four separate yet interrelated layers is presented in order to both identify and explore these dynamic factors that quality contact is dependent upon.     

Parent and Child Similarities in Divorcing and Non-Divorcing Families

Abstract

It is frequently assumed that the model of their parents' marriage exerts a significant influence on the next generation, but little has been done to examine the part played by personality characteristics of parents and children. This longitudinal study examines the relative contribution of parental divorce, parents' marital (dyadic) satisfaction, conflict resolution style and selected personality qualities on children's personality qualities and self-image as adolescents and adults, and their dyadic satisfaction and conflict resolution style as adults. The samples were 67 adolescents from divorcing and intact families and their parents. Parents and children were interviewed when the children were aged 13-16, and the divorcing families were at the point of divorce. The children were followed up over 10 years until aged 23-26. At Year 1 the parents completed the anxiety, depression, sensitivity and submissiveness scales of the Neuroticism Scale Questionnaire (NSQ), the Spanier Dyadic Satisfaction Scale, and a conflict resolution scale, and made an appraisal of their children's socio-emotional maturity. Adolescents also completed the NSQ and a measure of self-image (Offer Self-Image Questionnaire: OSIQ). Ten years later the children again completed the NSQ and the OSIQ, and those who were currently in a dyadic relationship completed the Spanier and the conflict resolution scales. There were no differences on any measures between the children from divorced and intact homes. Husbands and wives were in reasonable agreement about their dyadic satisfaction and conflict resolution style, but no relationship was found between these and the corresponding self-reports of their adult children. Over the ten years of the study, mother and father depression predicted child depression, mothers' sensitivity predicted childrens' (and especially daughters') sensitivity, and fathers' lack of sensitivity predicted sons' submissiveness. The parents' appraisal of their adolescents' socio-emotional maturity at Year 1 predicted their children's self-image at Years 1 and 10, and their conflict resolution at Year 10; while self-image at Year 10 predicted contemporary Spanier scores. The findings are discussed in the light of current debates on the contribution of personality qualities to divorce and its sequelae for children.     

Understanding Single Mothers’ Parenting Stress Trajectories

Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, we examined single mothers’ (n = 1,229) parenting stress trajectories across the years when their children were ages 1, 3, and 5. Analyses were based on a latent growth curve model incorporating time-invariant and time-varying covariates to better understand single mothers’ parenting stress trajectories. Single mothers’ initial level and rate of change in parenting stress trajectories were significantly predicted by the initial levels of infants’ negative emotionality. The time-varying covariates of work–family conflict and parental engagement were significantly associated with single mothers’ parenting stress when their children were ages 1, 3, and 5.     

Locus of Control and Marital Termination:

Abstract

This is a pilot study which compares the effects of two divorce laws on the functioning of parents and children immediately after the separation and two years later. The Parenting Act of 1987 in Washington state is a novel approach to divorce, which was intended to reduce parental conflict by focusing on parenting functions and responsibilities rather than on custody. Parents divorcing under the previous law (a no-fault, joint custody permissible approach) and their children were used for comparison. Two hundred consecutively divorcing couples, for each law, divided equally between a heavily urban county and a rural county were invited to participate. Both parents were asked to rate their own adjustment and the adjustment of each of their children. Respondents were surveyed again two years later. Proponents of the Parenting Act expected that the new law would reduce interparental conflict, help fathers stay more involved with their children, improve the reliability of support payments, and reduce the impact of divorce on children. The expected benefits of the Parenting Act were not demonstrated in this study, although children were somewhat more likely to reside with their fathers than children whose parents divorced under the “no-fault” law. Furthermore, the Parenting Act appeared to have an adverse effect on parents' post-divorce adjustment. However, the low response rate limits the reliability of these conclusions.     

An Early Look at Divorce:

Sixty-one children, aged six to twelve, were observed while playing with their mothers, all of whom had separated from their husbands within 12 months. Dyads played for 30 minutes while their interactions were videotaped; tapes were then coded into various mother behavior, child behavior, and interchange categories. Analyses of variance comparing dyads with children of different ages (six to eight vs. nine to twelve), gender, and length of parental separation (one to five months vs. six to twelve months) were performed. The involvement and positiveness of mother-child dyads were lower for the younger children observed at the first half than those observed at the last half of the post-separation year. The opposite was true for the older children, especially the older boys. Gender and age are discussed as critical factors in affecting post-divorce relationships.     

Parental Modeling and Deidentification in Romantic Relationships Among Mexican‐Origin Youth

This study investigated youth's modeling of and deidentification from parents in romantic relationships using two phases of data from adolescent siblings, mothers, and fathers in 246 Mexican‐origin families. Each parent reported his and her marital satisfaction and conflict, and youth reported on parent–adolescent warmth and conflict at Time 1. Youth's reports of modeling of and deidentification from their mothers and fathers and three romantic relationship outcomes were assessed at Time 2. Findings revealed that higher parental marital satisfaction, lower marital conflict, and higher warmth and lower conflict in parent–adolescent relationships were associated with more modeling and less deidentification from parents. Moreover, higher deidentification was linked to a greater likelihood of youth being involved in a romantic relationship and cohabitation, whereas more modeling was linked to a lower likelihood of cohabitation and older age of first sex. Discussion underscores the importance of assessing parental modeling and deidentification and understanding correlates of these processes.     

Negotiating transnational ambivalence: how ageing parents grapple with family separation across time

ABSTRACT

This article uses older parents of parachute kids as an example to explore the ways in which the heads of transnational households assess intergenerational intimacy at a later stage of their life trajectories. I argue that transitioning to a later life stage motivates or even demands older parents reorient their perspectives on the separation from their children overseas. Specifically, I offer the concept of transnational ambivalence to analyse the processes whereby older parents grapple with the meaning of being physically separated from their children. This study demonstrates how the interplay between extended family separation and human ageing provokes complex feelings and emotions among parents. In addition, this research chronicles the factors that explain the variation in parental ambivalence. In so doing, this article contributes to the literature on transnational families by illuminating the temporal reflexivity of parents ‘left behind’.     

Family Dispute Resolution: Use,Timing, and Outcomes

The mandatory requirement for separating or separated parents to mediate disputes over children before filing an application for the courts represents one of the key changes introduced in the 2006 Australian family law reforms. The process is known legally as Family Dispute Resolution (FDR). Based on the reports of three cohorts of parents who had separated in different periods after these reforms were implemented, this paper examines: (1) the socio‐demographic characteristics and circumstances of parents who used FDR; (2) the extent to which parents who attended FDR at different periods after separation differ in characteristics and circumstances; (3) FDR outcomes and the extent to which these outcomes vary according to parents’ circumstances and their timing of FDR use. The analysis shows that use of FDR was quite common among separated parents. Parents who went to FDR were typically able to reach an agreement and this positive outcome appeared to have increased over time, which may reflect improving and refining practice. The data show that the quality of inter‐parental relationship and circumstances surrounding separation such as family violence and other issues are closely linked with FDR use and its outcomes. They also reveal that parents who used FDR typically did so in the early stage of separation with its use much less common after separation for three or four years. Typically, in these cases, s60I certificates, which are normally required before the courts can intervene, were issued.     

Evaluating the Effectiveness of the Reframing Technique in Psychodynamic Social Work Practice

This multiple case study responds to the need for process and effectiveness studies in mental health social work practice through providing an in-depth analysis of the operationalisation of the reframing technique from a psychodynamic perspective. The practitioner–researcher studies (1) the way reframing (theory) is applied in the work with the parents of six latency aged children suffering from child separation anxiety disorder (practice) and (2) the effects of the technique on the parents and their relationship with the child. Reframing provided relational meaning and accordingly modified the parental ambivalence to bring the child for assessment, the parental inability to set boundaries on child aggressive behaviours, the parental child overprotection behaviours, the separation anxiety symptoms of the child, the parental phobic anxiety, the emotionally painful parental psychosocial histories, and the parental couple relationship problems. The study establishes that the concept of reframing is worth further exploration in mental health social work practice.     

Risk and Resilience Among African American Children of Incarcerated Parents

Abstract

The current literature indicates that children of incarcerated parents are negatively responding to parent-child separation and vulnerable to myriad adverse psychological, emotional, and behavioral outcomes. African American children are the most greatly impacted by this social issue as they account for over 50% of all children of incarcerated parents. Despite the risks, many of these youths appear to cope with parent-child separation. There is a paucity of literature that employs a risk and resilience conceptual model to explicate the variability in developmental trajectories. This article reviews the literature on risks and resilience among African American families. An interpersonal-ecological conceptual model that emphasizes the reciprocal interaction between the person and social context is employed. Moreover, African American resilient factors that potentially mediate the relationship between parental incarceration and environmental risks and developmental outcomes are discussed.     

Intergenerational Persistence of Skills and Socioeconomic Status

This paper describes how the socioeconomic status (SES) of parents relates to the formation and development of the skills and preferences of their teenage children, which have proven to be key to understanding differences in life outcomes. The study used data from a novel survey, conducted in Mexico, that recorded cognitive and non-cognitive skills and social preferences of both parents and children. It analyzed the relationship between the SES of parents and their children’s skills, and found that children’s skills were consistently related to parental skills, and that intergenerational persistence of skills was higher for cognitive than for non-cognitive skills or social preferences. It also found that the cognitive skills gap between the first and fifth quintile of SES was related mainly to characteristics like parents’ own skills, years of schooling, and aspirations for their children, but that these parental characteristics were less important in explaining non-cognitive skills and preferences.     

Parental Child‐Rearing Conflicts Through Adolescence: Trajectories and Associations With Child Characteristics and Externalizing Patterns

Research on longitudinal interparental conflict patterns and offspring development is scarce. The population‐based TOPP study (N = 459) was used to investigate (1) child‐rearing conflict trajectories through four time points during childhood and adolescence (ages 8–16), and (2) associations between conflict trajectories and child characteristics (i.e., birth order, gender, externalizing patterns from early childhood). Latent profile analysis identified six distinct trajectories. Conflict levels decreased for most respondents over the adolescent offspring period, but offspring's birth order and externalizing problems were related to less typical trajectories and higher levels of conflict. Onset of externalizing problems was of additional importance for the course of parental child‐rearing conflicts. The results highlight the perception of the whole family as an interwoven system.     

Parents' Marital Status, Conflict, and Role Modeling: Links With Adult Romantic Relationship Quality

This study investigated three parental marital statuses and relationship quality among unmarried, but dating adults ages 18 to 35 (N = 1153). Those whose parents never married one another tended to report the lowest relationship quality (in terms of relationship adjustment, negative communication, commitment, and physical aggression) compared to those with divorced or married biological parents. In addition, those with divorced parents reported lower relationship adjustment and more negative communication than those with married parents. Parental conflict and the degree to which participants rated their parents' relationship as a healthy model for their own relationships partially explained the associations between parental marital status and relationship outcomes. We suggest that this particular family type (i.e., having parents who never marry one another) needs greater attention in this field in terms of research and intervention.     

The Varied Impact of Couple Relationship Breakdown on Children: Implications for Practice and Policy

This review of international literature assesses the impacts that the relationship breakdown of parents has on children and factors that can provide support should this occur. The parental separation process causes significant albeit short‐term distress for most children, with a minority reporting longer‐term outcomes such as socio‐economic disadvantage, behavioural problems, poor educational achievement, and physical and emotional health problems. Factors increasing the likelihood of sustained disadvantage include: poverty; poor parent–child relationships; continuing parental conflict, multiple transitions in family formation; and poor maternal mental health. Supporting the factors that can improve child outcomes, exploring opportune ways to strengthen couple and family relationships, and integrating the views of children (for example, in court‐based dispute resolution) are the leading implications for practice and policy.