Relationships Among Caregiving,Income, Gender,and Health: A Cross-Sectional Examination of a Representative Sample of Older Americans

Although there is substantial evidence to support the effect of burden on caregivers, few studies have compared caregivers to their noncaregiving counterparts on the basis of health and well-being outcomes. This study examines the relationship between caregiving and health and whether other factors may have stronger influence on well-being measures. Using a nationally representative sample of older adults in the United States (N = 3,005), this study examines relationships between caregiving status, gender, and income, and 9 outcomes (self-rated physical and mental health, time since seeing a doctor, time since most recent pap smear or prostate-specific antigen [PSA] test, depression, loneliness, stress, anxiety), using logistic and linear regression models. Results support that paradoxically, caregiving was associated with increased likelihood of PSA test in male caregivers, although data also indicated higher levels of anxiety and stress, as might be expected. Income was associated with 8 of 9 outcomes, and gender predicted depression, anxiety, stress, and self-rated mental health. The study highlighted the importance of psychosocial stressors, such as income and gender, on the health outcomes of older adults who may be caregiving. Considering complexity of unique experience is necessary to accurately assess vulnerability to poor mental health or health-related outcomes.     

Perceptions of Students about Younger and Older Men and Women who May Be Homeless

ABSTRACT

Future human service providers will interact with homeless persons in health, mental health, and social service practice contexts. This study investigated the perceptions of students enrolled in social work courses who are pursuing degrees in human service programs toward older and younger female and male homeless individuals. Respondents (N = 207) were given one of four vignettes in which a character was identified as an older male, a younger male, an older female, or a younger female who was frequently seen near an interstate highway, talking to him/herself and appearing unkempt, thin, and frail. Most respondents perceived the vignette character as mentally ill, neglectful of health, likely to have HIV, tuberculosis, hepatitis A and/or hepatitis B and/or hepatitis C, likely to experience suicidal thoughts/ideation, and to have head lice/scabies/body lice. Older men were more likely to be perceived as military veterans with a history of mental illness and substance abuse. Older women were least likely to be perceived as having a history of substance abuse or using a handout to purchase ethanol. Older women were perceived to be homeless because they could not afford other living accommodations. A general linear model revealed significant differences in 7 of 41 items that respondents answered based on the gender and age of the vignette characters. These perceptual differences between male and female homeless persons will require additional investigation.     

Gender and health among older people: What is the role of social policies?

The study investigated how social policies moderate the association between gender and health among older people across European countries. The study is the first to take a comprehensive view on the role of social policies in connection with gender inequality in health among older Europeans. The association between gender and poor self‐rated health and limiting long‐standing illness was investigated in a multilevel framework. Cross‐level interaction effects showed that more generous minimum pensions, higher spending on eldercare and a higher degree of eldercare formalisation are associated with relatively better health among women, while more generous standard pensions are associated with relatively better health among men. The conclusion is that policies directed towards older people are not gender neutral; rather they are likely to affect men and women differently. By shaping the distribution of resources as well as of unpaid work, social policies can contribute to either strengthening or weakening the link between gender and health.     

Part-time employment and worker health in the United States

A growing body of research has highlighted the consequences of part-time employment for workers’ health and well-being. However, these studies have yielded inconsistent results and relied on cross-sectional data. In addition, relatively little empirical research has explored whether the effect of working part-time on health varies by gender, particularly in the United States. Using longitudinal data from three waves of the General Social Survey panel (2010–2012–2014), our study examined the association between part-time employment and perceived health among U.S employees, and whether this association varied by gender. The results showed that part-time workers were less likely to report poor self-rated health than full-time workers, especially among males. The pattern of results was consistent across empirical approaches—including generalized estimating equations and random effects models, with an extensive set of covariates. Taken together, these findings suggest that for U.S. employees, working part-time appears to be beneficial or at least not detrimental to perceived health, which warrants further investigation.     

Poverty affects access to regular source of primary care among the general population in Hong Kong

A territory‐wide two‐stage stratified random sample of 2,282 community‐dwelling Hong Kong adults were surveyed between 2014 and 2015 to investigate the association between poverty and regular source of primary care utilization. Poverty was operationalized by income‐poverty and deprivation. About 94% of our sample reported having regular source of primary care (Western and/or Chinese medical practitioner) and about 69% among them were in private sector. Multivariable logistic regression showed that people who were income‐poor and deprived were less likely to have regular source of primary care (income‐poor: OR = 0.523, p = .027; deprived: OR = 0.488, p = .007) and visit private primary care doctors (income‐poor: OR = 0.445, deprived: OR = 0.222, both p < .0001). Those who had chronic diseases were more likely to have regular source of primary care (multimorbid: OR = 10.709, p < .0001), but less likely to access care in the private sector (one chronic disease: OR = 0.690, p = .019; multimorbid: OR = 0.374, p < .0001) than those without. Further, being older and less skilled were significantly associated with less likelihood of visiting a private doctor. Path analysis showed that the number of chronic diseases had significant indirect effect on having regular source of primary care with being income‐poor and deprived as the mediators (β = ?.0183, p = .0016). Therefore, despite a public health‐care system that aims to deny no one from adequate health care for lack of means, regular source of primary care in Hong Kong is found to be pro‐rich. Future policies should tackle the problem of health‐care inequalities to meet the needs of the underprivileged.     

“Respect for each gender”: Gender,equity and backlash in Australia's male health policy

Australia is one of the few countries which has specific health policies for boys/men and girls/women as distinct groups. In this article I present an analysis of the discourses of gender, equity and disadvantage drawn upon in Australia's men's health policy. Through comparison with the women's health policy, I show that a dual focus on the essential differences between men and women and the ways in which the health system has failed men contribute to an adversarial gender politics, positioning men and women as rivals with competing needs. Reflecting broader debates concerning the negative impact of societal change on boys/men, I argue that, in its current form, Australia's health policy both taps into and, crucially, legitimises backlash politics, enabling it to ‘pass’ as sound public policy.     

Gender, Body Image, and Depressive Symptoms among Low-Income African American Adolescents

The present study tested for gender differences in depression and body image among a sample of 6th–8th grade low-income African American adolescents. Gender differences were found, with adolescent girls more likely to report both depressive symptoms and poor body image. The most frequently endorsed body image concern for both boys and girls was the desire to lose weight, with approximately half of the girls in this sample reporting they would like to lose weight. Results of mediational analyses indicate that poor body image mediates the relation between gender and depression in this sample, suggesting that heightened rates of depression, among girls, are due to heightened rates of poor body image.     

Major Depressive Disorder and Cardiovascular Disease in African-American Women

Major depression is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). This study used the National Survey of American Life (NSAL) to examine the co-occurrence of major depressive disorder (MDD) and CVD in a nationally representative sample of African American women (n = 2,216). Results from a series of logistic regression models indicated high rates of MDD and CVD in the sample, and the African American women with MDD were 1.59 times more likely to have CVD compared to those without MDD. High rates of MDD/CVD co-morbidity appeared across those living in and not living in poverty. These individuals demonstrated greater functional impairment and were high users of mental health services. Our findings validate that MDD and CVD co-occur and the need for more holistic interventions are warranted. The interface of co-morbid health conditions is critical to developing integrated models of care. Integrated health care systems are central for improving physical and mental health outcomes. These findings facilitate developing targeted assessment procedures and culturally appropriate treatment interventions. Increased knowledge regarding the role of gender, chronic health conditions, and the burden of mental illness in African American Women provides the opportunity to examine other chronic health conditions co-occurring with MDD.     

The effects of physical and psychological health on life satisfaction among older adults with a physical disability in South Korea: focus on gender differences

This study aims to investigate whether (a) functional disabilities, self-rated health and depression influence life satisfaction among older adults with a physical disability, and (b) whether the effects of the predictors differ by gender. The study utilises 2008 Korea Welfare Panel Study data. The findings reveal that functional disabilities and depression are negatively associated with life satisfaction, whereas self-rated health is positively related with life satisfaction. In addition, the effects of functional disabilities and income on life satisfaction vary by gender. Implications for practice and policy are discussed.     

Walking: A Gender Issue?

Gender has been neglected in models of the social determinants of health. We use walking as a case study to demonstrate how gender might be incorporated into multilevel social determinants of health frameworks to investigate health behaviours. We found that while men and women had some similar individual (e.g. confidence in doing regular physical activity) and environmental (e.g. presence of destinations) predictors of walking there were also gender differences in the associations found at both of these levels. For example, low levels of education were only associated with men's walking time while having people in the household who made walking easy or hard was only associated with women's walking time. Likewise, having a variety of places to walk to was important for women's walking but not men's. These results indicate that both universal and gender‐specific approaches to health education, health promotion and planning might be needed to improve walking levels.     

社会分层与健康不平等的性别差异:基于生命历程的纵向分析

本研究考察在社会分层与性别分层的交互作用下,生命历程中的两个竞争性理论--“累积优势/劣势理论”和“年龄中和效应理论”,哪一个更能解释中国男性和女性所经历的健康不平等。本研究利用“中国健康与营养调查”（CHNS）追踪数据和成长曲线模型发现,性别对社会分层导致的健康不平等及其发展有独特的影响。与男性相比,女性在各个年龄阶段都处于健康劣势,这一劣势是因为女性从教育和收入所获得的健康回报比男性低。此外,女性之间因为教育和收入导致的健康不平等程度随年龄的增长而缩小,男性之间的健康不平等程度并不随年龄的增长而改变,因此,本研究不支持健康不平等的“累积优势/劣势假说”,而是在女性群体中支持“年龄中和效应理论”。     

The role of gender stereotypes in the social acceptability of the expression of intimacy

This study explores the proposition that similar to the way that it is more acceptable for women than men to express traits that suggest vulnerability, such as loneliness or depression, it is also more acceptable for women to express emotional intimacy. Participants view an interaction between two men, two women, or a man and a woman, and evaluate the interpersonal attraction of the person expressing emotional intimacy. In Study 1, men gave the most negative evaluations to the man being intimate. In Study 2, thematic analysis of interview content suggests that participants hold gender stereotypes about intimacy and also that men frequently risk social rejection and may be perceived as gay when they engage in intimate expression, particularly when with other men. Overall, findings suggest that gender and related stereotypes have an observable role in the perceptions of an individual who is expressing intimacy.     

Race, Gender, and Educational Advantage in the Inner City

Objective . In this study we examine race differences in the effect of childhood in an urban inner–city community on educational attainment in adulthood. Methods . We examine a cohort of African American and white individuals born in the late 1950s and early 1960s in the same hospital. Our analysis examines a set of individual, family, and community characteristics for the respondents at three time points in their life course, birth, childhood, and adulthood. Results . We find that black men and women are substantially more likely than their white counterparts to graduate from high school, and that black women are more likely than white men, black men, and white women to graduate from high school and college. Conclusions . We conclude that social policy to eradicate urban disadvantage must not shift its focus to the plight of poor whites to the neglect of African Americans. Rather, we urge that inner–city white children be "drawn out of the shadows" of social research and that the uniqueness of race, class, and gender intersections realized in the inner city be brought to bear.     

The Public Perception of Female and Male Violence in Marital Relationships

Most studies dealing with intimate partner violence (IPV) investigate situations where the man is the aggressor. The present study examines the participants’ social perception of IPV and the connection between social perception and the severity of the violent act and its justification when carried out by men against women and vice versa. The research is based on a structured, self-reported anonymous questionnaire answered by 240 participants. The questionnaire examined demographic variables, attitudes toward IPV, the severity of the violent act, and its justification. Findings indicate that violent behavior of women is perceived as more justified than that of men and that men’s violent behavior is perceived as more severe by women than by men, but women’s violent behavior is perceived to be equally severe by men and women. The study raises awareness of the lack of gender boundaries in violence and of gender discrimination against males.     

Correlates of Psychological Distress and Major Depressive Disorder Among African American Men

This study examines the demographic correlates of depressive symptoms, serious psychological distress (SPD), and major depressive disorder (MDD; 12-month and lifetime prevalence) among a national sample of African American men. Analysis of the National Survey of American Life (NSAL) data set provides first-time substantiation of important demographic differences in depressive symptoms (measured by the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression scale [CES-D]), SPD (measured by the K6), and 12-month and lifetime MDD among African American men. Findings illuminate the heterogeneity within the African American male population. Findings also demonstrate the need for additional research focusing on within-group differences and a comprehensive research and mental health promotion agenda that recognizes the importance of improving access to education and employment and promoting healthy coping behaviors, while acknowledging the larger social context in which African American men live.     

State Gender Inequality,Socioeconomic Status and Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) in India: A Multilevel Analysis

While a growing body of literature has investigated the health impact of intimate partner violence (IPV), less has been written on the social determinants of IPV. The authors use multilevel modeling methods to analyze data from a sample of 83,627 women in India to examine the socioeconomic and demographic patterning of the state‐ and neighborhood‐level variation in, and the state‐ and/or neighborhood‐level characteristics related to, IPV. This study finds social gradients in IPV in which women who are uneducated, from marginalized castes, and living in poor households have higher likelihood of reporting IPV than those living in advantaged circumstances. The results also show differences in IPV between neighborhoods and between states that are partially explained by state levels of gender inequality. The results suggest that changing cultural norms to promote the status of women and increasing the educational and economic opportunities for all people could decrease the prevalence of IPV.     

Gender variation in the antecedents of task advice network size: Organizational tenure and core self-evaluations

Research finds gender differences in the size, quality, and consequences of social networks in the workplace. Building on these studies, we focus on one type of social network: task advice networks, which we define as the networks that act as conduits for information and knowledge directly related to work task completion. Using data on over 1300 employees, we test the relationships between task advice network size and two variables – organizational tenure and core self-evaluations, examining differences by gender. We find a larger positive association between core self-evaluations and task advice network size for men than for women. Additionally, we find that men, but not women, have larger networks when lower in tenure.     

Attitude towards career progression in Spanish dual-earner couples: A dyadic approach

This study addresses the relevance of gender roles and perceived gender discrimination against women in attitude towards career progression in heterosexual dual-earner couples. One hundred and thirty-nine wives and their husbands completed the questionnaires independently. From a dyadic data analysis, using the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM), we examined the actor and partner effect. The following findings were made: (a) an actor and partner effect of gender roles in husbands, (b) an actor effect of perceived gender discrimination in wives, and (c) an interaction effect between partner gender roles by actor professional status in wives. Overall, results showed that gender roles and perceived gender discrimination are useful factors in understanding couples’ interdependence in their attitudes towards career progression. Results are discussed in terms of the influence of traditional gender roles in perpetuating inequality between men and women and the relevance of perceived gender discrimination against women in attitude towards career progression.     

Differences in Actual and Perceived Online Skills: The Role of Gender*

Objective. The literature on gender and technology use finds that women and men differ significantly in their attitudes toward their technological abilities. Concurrently, existing work on science and math abilities of students suggests that such perceived differences do not always translate into actual disparities. We examine the yet‐neglected area concerning gender differences with respect to Internet‐use ability. In particular, we test how self‐perceived abilities are related to actual abilities and how these may differ by gender. Methods. We use new data on web‐use skill to test empirically whether there are differences in men's and women's abilities to navigate online content. We draw on a diverse sample of adult Internet users to investigate the questions raised. Results. Findings suggest that men and women do not differ greatly in their online abilities. However, we find that women's self‐assessed skill is significantly lower than that of men. Conclusions. Women's lower self‐assessment regarding their web‐use skills may affect significantly the extent of their online behavior and the types of uses to which they put the medium. We discuss the implications of these findings for social inequality.     

Social Policy and the Politics of Hispanic Aging

Abstract

This study examines the contributing factors to job satisfaction and commitment among lower-income, older (age 55 and over), part-time employees (N = 164). Job satisfaction index (JSI) scores were relatively high for all subjects and did not differ significantly for age, gender, or Senior Community Service Employment Program (SCSEP) status. While not particularly low, white employees were significantly less satisfied with their employment experiences than Hispanic or African American workers. The scarcity of fringe benefits was the least satisfying aspect of employment. Older Hispanics, whites, and men reported less interference between job, family, and home life than African Americans and women. Multiple regression analysis revealed that race/ethnicity, skill utilization opportunities, perceived views of elders held by younger workers and supervisors, availability of fringe benefits, and suitable work days explained the majority of variance in JSI scores. Opportunities to interact with others and stay active were more important than financial supplementation in these elders' assessment of the benefits of part-time employment. Findings provide further understanding of those elders likely to be placed successfully in part-time employment.