Responses to bullying among high-school students through the lens of general strain theory

Abstract

In General Strain Theory (GST), Agnew asserts that negative emotions in response to strains are associated with antisocial behavior. Researchers found GST to explain criminal and self-harm responses to bullying. However, not all youth respond antisocially, such as by harming the self or others. Thus, the question remains, when do youth respond to bullying antisocially versus asocially or prosocially? This study examined situation-based negative emotions, the availability of alternative relationships, and behavioral responses to physical, verbal, relational, and cyber bullying to answer this question. This study integrates research from sociology, criminology, health, and social psychology to address this question among a sample of high-school bully victims. This study found variation in the emotional and behavioral responses based on the type of bullying. However, across bullying types, the availability of alternative relationships was associated with increased prosocial responding.     

Strategies Used by Gay and Bisexual Young Men to Cope with Heterosexism

Although the pervasiveness of heterosexism in the lives of gay and bisexual youth is well established, little is known about the strategies these youth use to cope with stigma and discrimination based on their sexual minority status. In this qualitative study, the authors present findings and implications for clinical practice based on interviews with 43 gay and bisexual young men. Respondents' coping strategies are discussed in relation to current theory and research on coping with stigma, as well as the emerging field of emotion regulation. The narratives from the current study suggest that the emotion regulation paradigm is well suited to understanding the functions of strategies for coping with heterosexism and similar types of stigma.     

Strategies Used by Gay and Bisexual Young Men to Cope With Heterosexism

ABSTRACT

Although the pervasiveness of heterosexism in the lives of gay and bisexual youth is well established, little is known about the strategies these youth use to cope with stigma and discrimination based on their sexual minority status. In this qualitative study, the authors present findings and implications for clinical practice based on interviews with 43 gay and bisexual young men. Respondents’ coping strategies are discussed in relation to current theory and research on coping with stigma, as well as the emerging field of emotion regulation. The narratives from the current study suggest that the emotion regulation paradigm is well suited to understanding the functions of strategies for coping with heterosexism and similar types of stigma.     

Aggressive and stressed? Youth's aggressive behaviors in light of their internet use,sensation seeking,stress and social feelings

Aggressive behavior and its consequences are a serious mental health problem for youth all over the world. In this study we investigated how problematic internet use, sensation seeking and social/dispositional factors are related to three forms of aggression: physical, verbal, and anger in a sample of Hungarian youth. In total 408 (50% females) aged between 14 and 24 years (M = 20.8 years, SD = 2.6) completed an online survey (between January and June 2014; different online social networking sites and online forums, such as university groups on Facebook and Hungarian writing sites) assessing these constructs. Multiple linear regression analyses (stepwise method) revealed a mixed pattern of predictors of each type of aggression, with boredom, age (as negative predictor), stress, lack of shyness and internet-associated neglect accounting for significant variance in verbal aggression. Obsessive internet use, disinhibition, stress and loneliness each accounted for significant variance in anger. Finally, after controlling for gender, internet-associated neglect, disinhibition and loneliness were associated with physical aggression. These findings suggest that interventions targetting aggression need to focus on different behaviors and attributes, depending on the type of aggression exhibited. Learning effective aggression management techniques should be a part of complex health education programs that would help with prevention of social conflicts, substance use, problem behavior, psychological and mental health problems as well as problematic internet use.     

Bullying victimization in non-heterosexual university students

In this study the prevalence, impact on mental health, and coping of bullying victimization in university students identifying as non-heterosexual was compared with their heterosexual peers. University students were surveyed on bullying experiences within the past 12 months, their mental health, and use of coping strategies. Demographic information identified gender, age, and sexual orientation. Results indicated that 14.3% of students reported victimization, and that students ages 24 to 35, and those who identified as non-heterosexual, reported higher rates of victimization. No gender differences were found. Bullied students scored significantly higher on depression, anxiety, and stress scores than non-bullied students. Comparisons of mental health scores and coping strategies of non-heterosexual and heterosexual bullied students found no significant differences, indicating both groups are equally impacted, and equally utilize adaptive and maladaptive strategies to manage the victimization. Implications for tertiary institutions include identification of effective coping resources for diverse university student populations. Limitations and recommendations for future research are considered.     

A Social Ecology of Bias-Based Bullying of Sexual and Gender Minority Youth: Toward a Conceptualization of Conversion Bullying

Homophobic bullying is pervasive and deleterious, and a source of extensive health and mental health disparities affecting sexual and gender minority youth (SGMY). Investigations conducted over the past two decades across the social ecology of SGMY indicate individual (e.g., gender), microsystem (e.g., schools), and exosystem level (e.g., community norms) factors associated with homophobic bullying. Emerging evidence at the macrosystem level demonstrates the powerful influence of laws, policies, and ideologies on the population health of sexual minority adults. Based on social ecological theory and emerging evidence at the macrosystem level, we advance a conceptualization of the religious social ecology of homophobic bullying and articulate the construct of conversion bullying, a form of bias-based bullying that may be unique to SGMY. Conversion bullying is manifested in the invocation of religious rhetoric and rationalizations in repeated acts of peer aggression against SGMY that cause harm, based on the premise that same-sex attractions and behaviors are immoral or unnatural and with implicit or explicit communication that one should change one's sexuality to conform to heteronormative ideals. We describe implications of conversion bullying for social work practice, education, social policy, and research.     

What's Race Got to Do With It? Racial Socialization's Contribution to Black Adolescent Coping

While youth generally experience stressors from developmental milestones, Black youth also face racialized stressors. Racial socialization has been found to help Black youth cope with racialized stressors, but research has yet to show its contribution to coping beyond general socialization practices. This study examines how racial socialization contributes beyond that of general coping socialization to coping behaviors. Fifty‐eight third–eighth‐grade (M_age = 11.3, SD = 1.54) youth reported general coping socialization and racial socialization practices and coping behaviors. Results indicate that for engagement coping, racial socialization messages contributed significantly to parent‐provided engaged socialization strategies. Implications are considered for the ways in which Black youth experience stress and require culturally specific practices for successful coping with frequently encountered stressors.     

A sociology of bullying: Placing youth aggression in social context

In this paper we review the sociological literature on peer aggression among adolescents and demonstrate how it can form the basis of a new subfield in sociology on the subject of bullying. Although sociologists have mostly avoided the term bullying in classic works on adolescent aggression, these studies suggest that institutional social control, status hierarchies and social inequalities provide important social context for youth aggression. While historically they have not been in dialog with each other, when taken together sociological research on youth status relations and social networks, systemic bias, school culture and social ecology can lay the foundation of a sociology of bullying. We suggest that if sociologists see this work as shedding light on issues of bullying, they can begin to play a larger role in the shaping of the national conversation on bullying and influence anti-bullying programs in schools to take better account of the social dimensions of bullying.     

Gay‐Straight Alliances,Inclusive Policy,and School Climate: LGBTQ Youths’ Experiences of Social Support and Bullying

Gay‐Straight Alliances (GSA) and school policies focused on support for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer/questioning youth may reduce bias‐based bullying and enhance social supports in schools. Using multivariate regression, we tested the relationship between youth reports of the presence of GSAs and LGBTQ‐focused policies, independently and mutually, with experiences bullying and perceived support (n = 1,061). Youth reported higher classmate support in the presence of GSAs and higher teacher support in the presence of LGBTQ‐focused policies; the presence of both GSAs and LGBTQ‐focused policies was associated with less bullying and higher perceived classmate and teacher support. The findings indicate that GSAs and LGBTQ‐focused policies are distinctly and mutually important for fostering safer and more supportive school climates for youth.     

School and Community Service Providers' Perspectives on Gay,Lesbian and Questioning Bullying

ABSTRACT

Existing literature details many forms of harassment against sexual minority youth, including those behaviors that are present in schools. School and community service providers, such as counselors and psychologists, often witness first-hand the bullying that occurs in schools. Through their direct contact with sexual minority youth, they remain knowledgeable of current school environments facing these youth. Their perspectives on bullying of this population, however, are lacking. Sixteen school and community service providers participated in face-to-face, in-depth interviews regarding their perceptions and observations of general bullying and specific bullying of GLBTQI youth. The principles of grounded theory are used to analyze the data, which resulted in themes on bullying of GLQ youth. Results on these themes are presented in six main categories: Types and Locations of Bullying, Characteristics of Victims, Characteristics of Bullies, Effects of Bullying, Victim Response, and “Non-Targets.” The perspectives of the service providers give support for existing literature on the nature of bullying of sexual minority youth, and provide anecdotal information on victim approaches seen to be effective at combating or preventing sexual minority bullying.     

Stopping the Hate: Applying Insights on Bullying Victimization to Understand and Reduce the Emergence of Hate in Schools*

Scholars and educators study how the school climate influences aggressive behaviors like bullying. Far less research examines the relationship between school climate and hateful actions. This study addresses that gap by examining students’ perceptions and observations of the school climate with a nationally representative sample of U.S. middle and high school students. These data include reports of hateful verbal victimization and observations of hateful words and symbols. While some speculate that bullying and hate are separate phenomena, results indicate that school climates which reduce bullying victimization also reduce this study's measures of hate. One difference is that the presence of security guards or police has no effect on bullying victimization while it is associated with increased reports of hateful incidents. The results are interpreted in light of current efforts to reduce school violence and concerns over the role of harsh punishment and law enforcement in school. While one cannot conclude that bullying and hate are empirically distinct from these findings, they point to strategies to combine formal social control and efforts to improve school climate through forming positive social bonds between students and authority figures. This can keep students safe from both violence and hate.     

Coping With LGBT and Racial–Ethnic‐Related Stressors: A Mixed‐Methods Study of LGBT Youth of Color

This study examines how racial–ethnic minority lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youth cope with both racial–ethnic and LGBT‐related stress. Within a sample of 213 LGBT youth of color, the present study presents (1) quantitative and qualitative results from an approach and avoidance–based measure of parental racial coping socialization across six conversation domains, and (2) qualitative responses regarding LGBT stressors and associated coping strategies. The emphasis on approach versus avoidance varied across the racial–ethnic conversation domains. However, both racial–ethnic‐ and LGBT‐related coping strategies emphasized a combination of cognitive and behavioral strategies. Similarities and differences also existed in the types of stressors encountered across racial–ethnic and LGBT statuses. We discuss the potential for coping skill transfer across these minority statuses.     

“You Have to Be Strong to Be Gay”: Bullying and Educational Attainment in LGB New Zealanders

SUMMARY

Lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) persons in New Zealand are highly vulnerable to bullying, although bullying appears to have evolved from physical to primarily verbal abuse. Data from the Lavender Islands national study of 2,269 LGBs in New Zealand suggest that coming out early as LGB appears associated with lower levels of educational attainment, which in turn is associated with bullying and verbal assault. LGBs with higher educational attainment are more satisfied with an LGB identity than those with lower educational attainment. The data suggest that the consequences of bullying and assault may be longer term and more far-reaching than even the psychological challenges found in the literature. Consequences may include lower lifelong levels of satisfaction with an LGB identity, and an early coming out “penalty” in education. Quantitative data are supported by the unprompted narratives of respondents who expressed difficulties within the high school environment. The study also found relatively high levels of teacher discrimination and verbal assault reported by high educational attainers. In general, LGB educational attainers may perhaps be more appropriately called “educational survivors.”     

Bullying and suicide in high school students: Findings from the 2015 California youth risk behavior survey

ABSTRACT

School bullying and cyberbullying have been linked to suicidal behaviors through depression and alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, and other drug use. However, how these associations may differ across racial/ethnic groups remains relatively unknown. Using data from the 2015 California Youth Risk Behavior Survey, this study aims to examine two questions in different racial/ethnic subgroups: (1) Does bullying affect suicide? and (2) Does bullying have an indirect effect on suicide through depression and use of alcohol, tobacco, marijuana and other drugs? The sample consisted of 1,765 Californian youth attending grades 9–12. Logistic regression analyses indicate that being bullied is associated with increased odds of suicide across all racial/ethnic groups; depression mediates the effect of bullying on suicide for all racial/ethnic groups; alcohol use mediates the effect only for Hispanic youth; other drug use mediates the effect only for White youth; marijuana and tobacco use have no mediating role. These findings suggest that bullying may lead to suicide through different risk behaviors for youths of different racial/ethnic groups. Professionals who work with bullied youths need to treat depression more effectively to prevent suicide in service planning and provision. They also need to be aware of the racial/ethnic differences in the risk behaviors intercorrelated with bullying and suicide and provide appropriate treatment to the youth of specific race/ethnicity.     

Implicit and Explicit Peer Evaluation: Associations With Early Adolescents’ Prosociality,Aggression, and Bullying

Implicit and explicit peer evaluations were assessed among 120 early adolescents (56 boys, 64 girls; M age = 11.1 years). Explicit peer evaluations were round‐robin ratings of likeability; implicit peer evaluations were assessed with an approach‐avoidance task, also using a round‐robin design. Prosocial behavior, aggression, and bullying were assessed with a standard peer nominations procedure. Prosocial behavior predicted explicit positive evaluations given and received. Bullying and physical aggression predicted receiving explicit negative evaluations from peers. Implicit negative biases were found for girls but not boys. Relationally aggressive girls and bullying girls showed a negative implicit bias toward their peers. Possible implications for intervention are discussed.     

A Friend In Deed? Can Adolescent Girls Be Taught to Understand Relational Bullying?

Relational aggression is common among girls. It can be distressing for the victim and may not always be recognised as a form of bullying. This paper evaluates a school–based intervention designed to help girls understand relational bullying. Girls from a single‐sex school completed a two‐stage evaluation of the intervention. Students showed greater awareness of relational bullying after the intervention and indicated that it would influence them to change their behaviour. At follow‐up, retention of knowledge was good. Students reported greater self‐monitoring of behaviour and less exclusivity. While this is encouraging, we cannot conclude that all negative behaviours ceased. Implications and limitations of this study are discussed. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Understanding Bullying in an Affluent,Academically Rigorous U.S. High School: A Grounded Theory Analysis

Students and staff members from a U.S. high school were asked to discuss their understanding of bullying within the context of their school social environment. Findings from the grounded theory analysis suggest that understandings of bullying are socially constructed and that how bullying is understood is influenced by context and by the negotiation of identity within that context. Furthermore, subjects focused on drama, a form of social interaction considered far more common than bullying. Findings suggest that research on bullying may benefit from shifting its emphasis on defining bullying and establishing prevalence, to exploring youths' contextual and developmental perspectives.     

Two sides of the coin: the bully and the bullied

Bullying has become a worldwide phenomenon that produces serious individual and societal consequences when it is ignored. There are two sides of the coin that require consideration when psychiatric-mental health (PMH) nurses conduct assessments of situations that involve bullying behaviors. Both the bully and the bullied can incur serious, negative, and debilitating psychological effects. In some cases, physical injury and/or death occurs as a result of bullying. Deciphering the biopsychosocial mental health issues associated with bullying is challenging. PMH nurses have the clinical expertise to develop coping interventions and strategies that stop bullying, as well as enhance the mental health and wellness of both those who bully and who are bullied. This article presents PMH nursing biopsychosocial strategies for both sides of the bullying coin. Exemplars are provided to aid implementation of the strategies.     

Bullying and Victimization: The Role of Conduct Problems and Psychopathic Traits

Bullying and victimization occurring in adolescence can have a long‐lasting negative impact into adulthood. This study investigates whether conduct problems (CP) and dimensions of psychopathy predict the developmental course of bullying and victimization from ages 12 to 14 among 1,416 Greek‐Cypriot adolescents. Results indicate that initial levels of bullying were highest among adolescents scoring high on narcissism, impulsivity, or CP—particularly for those also showing high callous‐unemotional (CU) traits. Bullying behaviors were also more stable among youth scoring high on narcissism. Further, youth high on impulsivity showed more stable victimization by peers across development. Importantly, adolescents high on CP+CU were at greater risk for engaging in bullying across development compared with those scoring lower on CU traits or CP.     

Assessing School Climate Among Sexual Minority High School Students

ABSTRACT

Gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, questioning, and intersex (i.e., sexual minority) youth are often targets of aggression because of their sexual identity, both in and out of schools. Literature on school-related aggression toward sexual minority youth often relies on quantitative surveys or retrospective studies. Little non-retrospective research has been done with this population investigating the nature of bullying, school climate, and the effects of being a sexual minority youth in schools. Sixteen sexual minority high school youth participated in face-to-face, in-depth interviews. Results for the themes from these interviews are presented in four categories: Sexual minorities' overall perspective on their school climate, the nature of aggression in schools against sexual minorities when present, the characteristics of the victims and bullies, and the consequences of being a sexual minority in schools. These youth's perspectives provide support for existing literature on the nature of bullying while providing additional insights into the nature and deficiencies of the resources available to them at schools. Ideas for future research with sexual minority youth in school-based settings also are included.