Beyond organization-centred public relations: Collective action through a civic crowdfunding campaign

Public relations scholars have called for a shift from organization-centred approaches and practices to community, – or collective-based ones. With the Internet, the latter have become more frequent although under-researched or not well understood. This article addresses those gaps by researching a community-based campaign in New Zealand and by underpinning the research with collective action theory. Methodologically, it combines netnography, thematic analysis, and interviews with major players, to analyze a civic crowdfunding campaign. It provides an account of how two amateur activists not only initiated and managed this campaign, but also raised US$1.5 million (NZ$2.27) within three weeks to buy a private beach and gift it back to the New Zealand public. The article seeks to add to both PR scholarship and practice. It adds to the former by analysing the campaign and identifying success factors for civic crowdfunding campaigns more generally; and to the latter by accounting for a different kind of activist and community-based PR that goes beyond organization-centred approaches to offer gratifying community-centered work that improves the reputation of PR for contributing to the common good.     

Commentary: Professionals are from Venus,scholars are from Mars

Though public relations practice everywhere is suffering from low standards of professionalism, practitioners are hardly looking for support from public relations scholars. The question is why. This article argues that this is not because practitioners are reluctant to adopt the scholarly work that has been done, but because, in defining what professionalism is all about, practitioners and scholars live in different worlds. Coherence in views on professionalism can be seen as a prerequisite for development of practice. This article proposes a new model of professionalism in which certain values of previous views are adhered to and, where appropriate, partially integrated.     

A Postmodern Turn for Social Media Research: Theory and Research Directions for Public Relations Scholarship

The public relations literature on social media has focused primarily on how social media platforms can be leveraged to the advantage of organizations for relationship building and so-called dialogue with publics. Yet most research has positioned relationships in social media merely as opportunities for information exchange, perpetuating models of public relations grounded in systems theory that ignore power imbalances. Consequently, this article offers insights from postmodernist theories to first deconstruct existing research and then offer suggestions for future social media scholarship. The article argues that social media scholars have privileged dominant rational models of social engagement. Dissensus and disorder, according to Lyotard, may be as legitimate and more liberatory states of discourse for marginalized publics. Postmodern theories of language games and differential consciousness are also positioned as ways in which social media theory and practice may be advanced. The article thus complicates how relationships are theorized in contemporary scholarship and challenges both scholars and practitioners to rethink approaches to social media practice through a postmodern lens.     

Crowdfunding digital platforms: Backer networks and their impact on project outcomes

Crowdfunding platforms serve to connect project creators and backers. Previous research has explored several project and platform determinants that impact crowdfunding outcomes. However, there has been limited research on these determinants at an individual level. Our paper addresses how backers may influence the outcomes of projects in crowdfunding platforms. We explore several methods commonly used in the industry to identify influence and show that centrality measures through a backer affiliation network best exemplifies influence. Using data from Kickstarter, we construct a weighted backer network based on 52,678 common projects backed by 11,134 backers. Controlling for digital media mentions and project quality, we find evidence that backers in central positions within the network have a positive impact on multiple project outcomes such as the project success rates, amount of funds raised, speed of reaching the crowdfunding goal as well as the number of backers contributing to the project. These findings are replicated and reinforced by using data from a different crowdfunding platform using the entire backer network based on 1095 projects backed by 87,896 backers. Several robustness tests are used to validate these results.     

Reflections on the absence of formal reflection in public relations education and practice

This content analysis is a part of wider research into the value of reflective practice in public relations education and practice. Examination of this topic is important given that reflective practice is widely recognised as an essential element for claims of professionalism (Dewey, 1933; Schön, 1983, 1987), and professionalism remains an elusive goal for PR practitioners (L’Etang, 2009). This article examines the extent to which the terms and processes associated with reflective practice are formally included in the contents of a range of widely used and well regarded public relations textbooks. The aim is to provide insight into the significance (or lack of it) of reflective practice in contemporary public relations curricula. Given that textbooks are highly influential teaching media that both reflect and shape curricula, conclusions about the emphasis of reflective practice in public relations teaching can be drawn as a result of this analysis. The findings indicate that – based on the content of the textbooks analysed – reflective practice is not formally included in the public relations teaching curriculum. Further research is needed to determine whether this omission also reflects the situation in public relations practice. This research has relevance for public relations educators given that they play a significant role in influencing future generations of public relations professionals. It concludes with a call for a shift in public relations education that includes greater emphasis on reflective practice.     

Why practitioners do (not) apply crisis communication theory in practice

Twenty-five in-depth interviews with Belgian crisis communication practitioners were conducted to examine the gap between theory and practice. Crisis communication has become an important research area within public relations. Several studies have resulted in theories and guidelines regarding the effective use of communication during organizational crises. Unfortunately, these findings are not always put into practice. This study examines to what extent public relations practitioners apply theory in practice during crises and why. The findings offer an opportunity to formulate potential ways in which we can bridge the scholar-practitioner divide in public relations, through guidelines for both scholars and practitioners.     

Crowdsupporting als Gabentausch

Crowdfunding is a relatively new way of funding projects by drawing on small contributions from many individuals mediated through internet platforms. Crowdsupporting is a manifestation of crowdfunding which is often characterized by a peculiar mixing of aspects of market exchange and consumption on the one hand and donation and commitment to a cause on the other. The contribution argues based on gift exchange theory that the selfish and altruistic orientations of crowdsupporting interact in a way which constitutes a distinct form of social interaction not reducible to either of these orientations. This form of social interaction is embedded in a three-sided relationship between consumption, commitment to a cause and a community of the like-minded.     

Worthy? Crowdfunding the Canadian Health Care and Education Sectors

Crowdfunding, the practice of asking for money from others using the Internet, is a major private means through which Canadians are funding their health care and education. Crowdfunding has proliferated in Canada during the 2010s and continues to grow, approaching the revenues of Canada's major traditional charities. Proponents describe it as an empowering practice from which anyone can benefit. If its gains are inequitably distributed, however, increasing reliance on this private funding mechanism, especially in core areas of welfare state provision, can further exacerbate inequalities of opportunity and income. This study asks why Canadians turn to health care and education crowdfunding and how equitably funds are raised using this novel method. Based on a mixed methods analysis of 319 campaigns conducted on two prominent crowdfunding platforms between 2012 and 2014, we find that crowdfunding users’ needs frequently correspond to known gaps in the contemporary social safety net, including in the area of cancer care, and that campaigns for older and visible minority Canadians face a disadvantage. We argue that health care and education crowdfunding is a response to the shortcomings of Canadian welfare state provision, but one that reproduces offline inequalities with potentially perilous consequences for democratic life and individual suffering.     

An authenticity matrix for community engagement

Community engagement (CE), a key area of theory and practice in public relations, has two functions: first, to maintain and enhance relationships between organizations and diverse community groups in complex settings; and second, to give voice to these groups in addressing socially-situated problems. Implicit within these functions is CE’s ability to connect organizations with a selection of stakeholder voices that represent community perspectives on a given topic. It is the claimed representational nature of these voices that gives legitimacy to the processes and outcomes of CE. The role of public relations practitioners in CE is therefore to identify and involve voices that are authentic—that is, those that truthfully represent the extent and diversity of community sentiment. Such voices include those that are quiet or silent, even though they have a contribution to make. This study uses in-depth interviews with current practitioners to explore voice and authenticity in CE, and identifies four dimensions of CE in practice. These dimensions extend CE theory, particularly in public relations, by addressing the under-considered yet central role of authenticity in CE. The paper also draws on the dimensions to develop an Authenticity Matrix that allows CE practitioners to assess and critique their past and current CE projects. The Authenticity Matrix also provides guidance to public relations practitioners seeking to enhance the conditions for achieving authenticity in CE practice.     

Public relations and artificial intelligence: It’s not (just) about robots

Organizations of all kinds, as well as their in-house or agency public relations teams, increasingly co-opt Artificial Intelligence (AI) to enhance their capabilities. This paper examines a relatively new topic that has received little scholarly attention: the growing relationship between AI and public relations. It outlines several key roles that AI may play in future, based on trends in other industries, and considers the implications for public relations practitioners, their clients and employers. It therefore launches a dialogue about the diversity and extent of AI’s uses in public relations practice. The paper argues that, to date, commentators have placed too much emphasis on AI’s potential for task automation; AI’s broader technological, economic and societal implications for public relations warrant greater critical attention. This does not imply that practitioners need become expert technologists; rather, they should develop a sufficient understanding of AI’s present and potential uses to be able to offer informed counsel.     

Extending cultural horizons: Political economy and public relations

In this article, we aim to offer a conceptual bridge between political economy and the practice of public relations, which should be helpful especially for practitioners and scholars interested in public relations at a global level. The combination of social, political, and economic forces is powerful, pervasive, and highly influential on the public relations activities of organizations, and we assert that these factors must be examined in unison. In turn, we discuss the role of political–economic relationships and the constraints they impart on the goal-seeking behavior of organizations. We conclude by offering suggestions as to how public relations practitioners and scholars can begin to think about their efforts and linkages with political economy.     

Dialogue,strategic communication,and ethical public relations: Lessons from Martin Buber’s political activism

Dialogue and persuasive strategic communication are often perceived by public relations scholars as two distinct approaches to the practice. After revisiting and reassessing debates surrounding the two approaches, this article introduces accounts of the use of dialogue and strategic communication in the political life of Martin Buber, whose philosophy has inspired PR scholarship on dialogue. It traces Buber’s writings and activities as communicator in the service of the early Zionist movement and, in his later life, as campaigner against the establishment of the State of Israel, and as promoter of dialogue between Zionists and Arab Palestinians. Based on archival research the article uncovers Buber’s political and PR work to provide insights into his philosophy in the context of his political and life experiences. Inspired by Buber’s work the article argues that dialogue and strategic communication both have the potential to be deployed ethically, and for prosocial causes, or to be deployed in a self-serving and unethical way. In this, it supports other scholars’ argument that public relations should reconcile with the fact that both are legitimate tools and it further argues that both might be used either ethically or unethically. It concludes that ethical PR practice depends less on the form of communication, and more on transparency, honesty, openness, and respect in the way dialogue or strategic communication are conducted.     

Public participation in infrastructure and construction projects in China: From an EIA-based to a whole-cycle process

Many governments world-wide are increasingly encouraging the involvement of interested individuals, groups and organisations in their public infrastructure and construction (PIC) projects as a means of improving the openness, transparency and accountability of the decision-making process and help improve the projects’ long-term viability and benefits to the community. In China, however, the current participatory mechanism at the project level exists only as part of the environmental impact assessment (EIA) process. With an increasing demand for PIC projects and social equality in China, this suggests a need to bring the participatory process into line with international practice.The aim of this paper, therefore, is to identify the weaknesses of EIA-based public participation in China and the means by which it may be improved for the whole lifecycle of PIC schemes. To do this, the results of a series of interviews with a diverse group of experts is reported which analyse the nature and extent of existing problems of public participation in EIA and suggestions for improvement. These indicate that the current level of participation in PIC projects is quite limited, particularly in the crucial earlier stages, primarily due to traditional culture and values, uneven progress in the adoption of participatory mechanisms, the risk of not meeting targets and lack of confidence in public competence. Finally, a process flowchart is proposed to guide construction practitioners and the community in general.     

Political consumerism and the participation gap: are boycotting and ‘buycotting’ youth-based activities?

Does age predict political consumerism (boycotting or ‘buycotting’) among Canadian youth and adults? To what extent might political consumerism reduce inequities in civic participation? Using data from the 2008 Statistics Canada GSS on Social Networks, a multi-variate logistic regression analysis was conducted to investigate the relationship between age and politically motivated consumer behavior. Findings indicate that political consumerism is less likely among youth and the elderly than it is among middle-aged and young adults; however, education – rather than age – is found to be the strongest predictor. These results suggest that (a) popular beliefs/stereotypes about youths’ propensity toward non-traditional ‘consumer-activism’ may exaggerate the reality of the situation, and (b) notions that political consumerism can effectively narrow participatory inequalities among citizens may be overly optimistic. In evaluating two competing perspectives on youth political consumerism, this study argues that political consumerism does not by itself resolve issues of political marginalization faced by young Canadians; although consumer activism may offer an ‘alternative’ means of asserting political agency, it retains many of the same demographic ‘participation gaps’ as more traditional activist tactics.     

ARE PROMISES MEANINGLESS IN AN UNCERTAIN CROWDFUNDING ENVIRONMENT?

We use a prominent crowdfunding organization, Kickstarter, to analyze the factors that determine timeliness of delivery of rewards to financial backers. We seek to determine the extent to which promised rewards are delivered on time and to characterize projects that have stronger likelihood of timely delivery of rewards. We find that lateness commonly occurs, yet cannot be explained universally with any given set of project characteristics, implying that the uncertainty of rewards involved with crowdfunding entities is difficult to overcome. (JEL D71, D83, L82)     

Does public relations scholarship need better PR? practitioners’ perspectives on academic research

Articles in academic public relations journals often provide recommendations for public relations practitioners. The purpose of this study is to gain a practitioner perspective on that work and to determine if a potential disconnect between public relations practitioners and scholars exists. Through semi-structured, in-depth interviews with 22 public relations practitioners, this study examines knowledge, readership, and applicability of public relations scholarship in industry. Participants indicated they have a general awareness of and assigned value to academic scholarship; however, they do not actively consider it or use it in their professional lives due to issues of access, time, and relevance. Many appeals have been made within the academy to make scholars’ work more “public,” and these results reflect this need. Based on these findings, recommendations are made to increase the accessibility and relevance of scholarly work for professionals.     

Better stay single? Public relations and CSR leadership in India

Public relations scholars have argued that public relations practitioners, as boundary spanners between organizations and their diverse publics, are well positioned to assume leadership and become the “conscience” of their organization's CSR efforts. Conversely, scholars have also questioned public relations practitioners’ assumption of leadership of CSR. Much of the debate, both for and against, has been generated in Euro/American contexts of practice. As part of a larger study, this research aimed to examine whether the argument for public relations’ leadership of CSR holds true in non-Western contexts as well, specifically, by examining CSR leadership in corporations in India that are known to be socially responsible. This study found that in the majority of companies that are heavily engaged in CSR in India, it was the senior business executives and managers, instead of the PR practitioners, that were tasked with CSR leadership. Based on the findings of this study, this paper questions the assumption of CSR leadership by public relations practitioners.     

Social License to Operate in Crowdfunding Campaigns

Organizations and individuals need to engage their communities to gain the social license to operate (SLO). In crowdfunding, SLO is reflected in funding by the members of communities of interest around crowdfunding campaigns. Thus campaign creators’ success relies on obtaining SLO from their communities. This article examines how crowdfunding campaign creators engage their communities to gain and maintain SLO to secure funding for their campaigns. Content analysis of 68 successful and unsuccessful Kickstarter campaigns shows how successful campaign creators build their communities by the use of weak ties and have abundant relational and episodic engagement with their communities to obtain SLO. The results also show how successful campaign creators practice dialogic engagement to maintain their SLO over time. This study expands public relations to crowdfunding by framing crowdfunding as a community engagement practice and operationalizing SLO as tangible funding.     

German Muslims and their engagement in participatory culture: reflections on civic and artistic contributions to the public sphere

This paper examines publics of young German Muslims. Case studies include the singer Huelya Kandemir, the theatre group Uma Lamo and the social network Zahnräder. By focusing on spiritual music publics, theatrical comedy publics and social publics, it tries a new approach to the way in which we understand minority public engagement. In addition to examining the concept of counterpublics, it utilizes the concept of participatory culture, which offers a relevant complement. The study argues that the publics of young German Muslims display multifaceted artistic and civic engagement, which can best be understood in terms of participation in cultural or civic productions and contribution to the wider German public. Features or effects of counterpublics, such as the countering of mainstream representations of minority identities and the offering of alternative discourses, are occasionally reflected in their activities.     

Investor Relations: Two-Way Symmetrical Practice

Although public relations claims investor relations as one of its specializations, scholars have paid little attention to it and practitioners historically have been divided between finance and public relations. A national survey of 145 members of the National Investor Relations Institute and the Public Relations Society of America's Financial Communications Section tested models and dimensions of practice to build theory. Results show that such investor relations officers predominantly practice the two-way symmetrical model and their work is characterized by the dimensions of symmetrical effects and—to some degree—two-way communication. Practitioners do not differ by their orientation to either finance or corporate communication/public relations. This study is the first to find the predominant practice of the normative model across its sample, thereby refuting long-standing criticism that the symmetrical model is a utopian ideal. The two-way symmetrical model does exist in the real world, and it can be found in the bastion of capitalism—publicly owned corporations in the United States.