Violence exposure and bullying among African American adolescents: Examining the protective role of academic engagement

While African American youth are at disproportionate risk for both community violence exposure and bullying, few studies have examined the association between these two forms of violence in this population. Moreover, given the countless hours that youth spend in schools, identifying school experiences that might protect against this association is an important step to reducing the likelihood of engagement in bullying. The present study explored whether academic engagement buffers the association between exposure to community violence (i.e., hearing about violence, witnessing or victimization) and bullying involvement (i.e., perpetration or victimization) in a cross-sectional sample of low-income African American adolescents residing in Chicago. A convenience sample of 638 African American high school students were recruited from several Chicago neighborhoods between 2014 and 2015. A series of hierarchical linear regression models assessed the relation between types of community violence exposure, academic engagement and bullying behaviors. We found that youth exposed to community violence – specifically, those who had been victimized and heard about violence – were at increased risk for being victims and perpetrators of bullying. High academic engagement reduced the likelihood that youth who heard about violence well would be at higher risk for bullying involvement. Prevention efforts aimed at reducing bullying involvement would benefit from assessing and targeting violence and victimization in the community, in addition to youths' school experiences.     

Understanding Violence in the School: Moral and Psychological Factors

Since violence was declared a health issue in the 1980s, the literature on violence has identified psychological and psychosocial factors which place youth at risk for violent behaviors. This paper reviews the psychological literature on violent youth, the impact of violence on youth predisposing them to violent behavior, including an exploration into parenting styles and the social climate of some schools in which violence is occurring. Preventative strategies involving primary, secondary and tertiary interventions to combat school violence and youth violence, in general, are considered.     

Understanding Violence in the School: Moral and Psychological Factors

Since violence was declared a health issue in the 1980s, the literature on violence has identified psychological and psychosocial factors which place youth at risk for violent behaviors. This paper reviews the psychological literature on violent youth, the impact of violence on youth predisposing them to violent behavior, including an exploration into parenting styles and the social climate of some schools in which violence is occurring. Preventative strategies involving primary, secondary and tertiary interventions to combat school violence and youth violence, in general, are considered.     

War Traumas and Community Violence

SUMMARY

This cross-sectional survey study examined the relationship between exposure to war traumas and community violence and academic, behavioral, and psychological well-being among Khmer refugee adolescents. The 144 adolescents studied were exposed to high rates of violence. One third had symptoms indicative of PTSD and two thirds had symptoms indicative of clinical depression. The number of violent events they were exposed to significantly predicted their level of PTSD, personal risk behaviors, and GPA, but not their level of depression or behavior problems reported at school. Perceived social support made a difference in the lives of these youth and predicted better outcomes. The implications for research and practice are discussed.     

The Promise of an Accumulation of Care: Disadvantaged African-American Youths’ Perspectives About What Makes an After School Program Meaningful

African-American youth growing up in dangerous, deprived homes and communities are at great risk of developing impaired relationship capabilities, which disadvantages them further in the workplace and in their personal lives. While after-school programs have well-documented positive effects, researchers have called for better understanding of improving youths’ engagement in services and their constructive relationship skills. Here, we report on a project using participatory action methods to engage poverty-level African-American youth in developing a leadership development program they would find most meaningful. Stand Up Help Out (SUHO) gave youth three layers of caregiving experience: receiving care from instructors, giving and receiving care from peers, and providing care through constructive community action initiatives and mentoring elementary school children. Findings were that: (1) participation and retention of youth in SUHO were considerably higher than national averages; (2) youth reported that SUHO made it possible for them to have better relationships as friends, romantic partners, and in academic settings, and they looked forward to being better parents, (3) youth developed positive peer relationships despite a context of mistrust and gang violence, (4) youth actively sought out relationships with caring adults and identified what was most meaningful in those relationships, and (5) youth deeply valued the opportunity to develop their ability to care for others.     

Violence prevention in the schools: Implications for occupational therapy

The prevalence of violence in the United States has begun to take its toll on the youth in schools. As children spend the majority of their waking hours in school, it is there that programs to prevent violence should be implemented. Various factors compiled from the literature including traits of children "at risk", lack of adult supervision, and architectural barriers, are identified as contributing to on-campus crime. Skills training for educators, school officials, parents, and children, in addition to reduction of architectural barriers, are discussed as methods to promote awareness and prevention. Implications for occupational therapy practitioners are discussed.     

Youth violence trajectories and proximal characteristics of intimate partner violence

Analyses first examined the developmental course of intimate partner violence (IPV), beginning with trajectories of youth violence. We then examined potential mediators of prior youth violence trajectories in models predicting later IPV perpetration as an outcome. Potential mediators include risks associated with the individual (e.g., current alcohol and drug use and mental health diagnosis), characteristics of a perpetrator's partner (e.g., use of alcohol/drugs and history of antisocial behavior), and aspects of the surrounding community (e.g., neighborhood norms favorable to violence and drug use). Data are from the Seattle Social Development Project, a longitudinal study of over 800 individuals followed from elementary school to young adulthood (age 24). Findings suggest that both chronic and late-increaser patterns of youth violence elevated the likelihood of later IPV perpetration. Partial mediation effects of the relation between youth violence and IPV were found for variables related to one's partner and the surrounding community. Individual characteristics of the perpetrator were not uniquely predictive of IPV when measured as a risk index and modeled along with other risk factors. Findings indicate that the risk of IPV could be lessened by addressing earlier forms of violence and by intervening to reduce risks within and across domains of influence.     

School Reintegration and Perceived Needs: The Perspectives of Child and Adolescent Patients During Psychiatric Hospitalization

Youth hospitalized with psychiatric illness often experience disruption in their school attendance. Knowledge from the youths’ perspective of concerns for returning to school after hospitalization is very limited. Exploring youths’ concerns for school reintegration may inform transition practices for youth with psychiatric illness. The purpose for this study was to explore youths’ concerns for school reintegration and to report their perceived needs for support before leaving hospital. A questionnaire was developed to capture qualitative perceptions and quantitative self-reports of youths’ concerns for school reintegration. Child and adolescent patients accessing in-patient psychiatric care completed surveys containing open-ended questions about their concerns and service needs at discharge, and self-ratings of their concerns for their studies, friends, other students and emotions. One hundred and sixty-one youth (mean age 15.41, SD 1.4; 75% female; 57% with a primary diagnosis of major depression) reported considerable concerns about anticipated social situations at school, academic standing, feeling overwhelmed with school and great difficulty with managing their emotions. Youth identified a need for ongoing supports from mental health professionals and school personnel, social support from friends and family, and educational assistance or modifications. High rates of intense worries reported about school issues and school reintegration suggest this vulnerable population may benefit from increased attention to transition planning. Two important developmental domains, social development and educational outcomes, appear at-risk and this risk highlights the need for a greater emphasis on continuity of care.     

Comprehensive assessment of youth violence in five Caribbean countries: Gender and age differences

Differences in gender and age have been established in the context of crime, violence, and prevalence of risk and protective factors. These studies are often notable only in the Western Hemisphere. Despite growth in crime and violence in the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), relatively little understanding of violence in CARICOM member states exists. In light of these concerns, the major purposes of this study include: (1) comprehensively assessing the scope of the four behaviors (i.e., engagement, victimization, witness, and report) in relation to violence and youth’s perceptions of risk and protective factors in family and school domains, and (2) examining how they differ by youth’s gender and age. This study draws on assessment data on youth violence in five CARICOM Member States: Antigua and Barbuda, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago using a completed 51-item quantitative questionnaire from approximately 512 students. The results suggest that violence engagement, victimization, witness, and report significantly differed by gender and age. Male students were more likely to engage in violence, but less likely to report such violence to adults. Similarly, older students reported that they were more likely to engage in and witness violence. For risk and protective factors, female students reported significantly higher scores on domestic violence, whereas male students had higher scores on the access to drugs/weapons. Older students also tended to report higher levels of some school risk factors and lower levels of some protective factors in both family and school.     

Behavioral health correlates of exposure to community violence among African-American adolescents in Chicago

AimsThough public health researchers are more aware of behavioral health concerns among African American youth, few studies have explored how exposure to community violence may be related to adverse youth concerns. This study examines the relationship between exposure to community violence and mental health problems, substance use, school engagement, juvenile justice involvement, and STI risk behaviors.MethodsA total of 638 African American adolescents living in predominantly low-income, urban communities participated in the study by completing self-report measures on exposure to community violence, mental health, school engagement proxies, substance use, delinquency markers and sexual risk behaviors.ResultsAdolescents who reported higher rates of exposure to community violence were significantly more likely to report poorer mental health, delinquent behaviors, a history of juvenile justice involvement, lower school bonding and student-teacher connectedness. These youth were also significantly more likely to use alcohol, cigarettes, and illicit substances, and engage in sexual risk behaviors.ConclusionsFindings suggest that there is a critical need for culturally relevant prevention and intervention efforts for African American adolescents who are frequently exposed to community violence.     

Effect of Trajectories of Friends' and Parents' School Involvement on Adolescents' Engagement and Achievement

In a sample of 527 academically at‐risk youth, we investigated trajectories of friends' and parents' school involvement across ages 12–14 and the joint contributions of these trajectories to adolescents' age 15 school engagement and academic achievement. Girls reported higher levels of friends' and parents' school involvement than boys. Both parents' and friends' school involvement declined across ages 12–14. Combined latent growth models and structural equation models showed effects of the trajectories of friends' and parents' school involvement on adolescents' age 15 school engagement and academic achievement, over and above adolescents' prior performance. These effects were additive rather than interactive. Strategies for enhancing parent involvement in school and students' affiliation with peers who are positively engaged in school are discussed.     

Heterogenous associations between Gender-Sexuality Alliances and LGBTQ adolescents' maladjustment across individual victimization level

Gender-Sexuality Alliances (GSAs), which are student-initiated school clubs for LGBTQ youth and allies, can reduce victimization for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) youth. This preregistered study identified heterogeneous correlates of GSAs, based on data from an anonymous survey of LGBTQ adolescents aged 13–17 years living in the United States (N = 10,588). In line with the healthy context paradox (Pan et al. [Child Development, 92, 2021, and 1836]), the presence of a GSA exacerbated associations between LGBTQ-based victimization and depressive symptoms, lower self-esteem, and lower academic grades—particularly in transgender youth. Inclusive settings, such as GSAs, might prevent increasing disparities by including tailored strategies to monitor and support more vulnerable, victimized LGBTQ youth.     

Psychosocial,Motivational, and Contextual Profiles of Youth Reporting Different Patterns of Substance Use During Adolescence

This research examined patterns of substance use and academic factors among a sample of 733 African‐American and European‐American adolescents from a metropolitan area. First, youth were classified into 11th grade high, moderate, or no substance use groups and classified as users, initiators, desistors, and nonusers based on eighth and 11th grade use. Nonusers did not differ in eighth grade from 11th grade moderate users and initiators over time. Eighth graders who reported misbehavior and having low‐achieving friends were more likely to be high 11th grade users and users at both grades. Direct achievement effects were not found; however, interactions indicated achievement was protective when paired with having fun at school, high task value, and low levels of socioeconomic status (SES); and was a risk factor when paired with positive self regard, low fun at school and high SES. Cluster analyses indicated the most prevalent group of substance users reported high grades, social reasons for going to school, and having friends who do well in school.     

Youth-centred practice: Positive youth development practices and pathways to better outcomes for vulnerable youth

This paper reports on a longitudinal study of 1012 youth (aged 13–17 years). Half were clients of two or more services and were followed for three years to enable analysis of the impact over time of services delivered using positive youth development practices (PYD). Youth completed self-report questionnaires administered by trained interviewers. It was hypothesised that youth reporting two positive service experiences at Time 1 would report better wellbeing and resilience and lower risk at Time 3 than youth reporting inconsistent or two negative service experiences at Time 1. MANCOVA was used to determine the relationships between service quality and wellbeing, resilience, and risk, with three covariates that assessed the presence of positive relational resources (with caregivers, friends and school) around youth. Results indicated that service quality at Time 1 had a positive effect on wellbeing and resilience at Time 3, but not on risk levels. The importance of consistent use of PYD approaches across services is discussed, as is the need for services to more directly address risk levels for vulnerable youth.     

Harnessing Resistance in Interventions with Young People

This article draws on the findings from the qualitative phase of a New Zealand longitudinal study concerning vulnerable young people’s transitions to adulthood. The young people, aged between 12 and 17 at the time of the first interview had sustained exposure to harm (abuse, violence, addictions, disengagement from school and mental health issues) and were clients of statutory and non-governmental services including: child welfare services, juvenile justice services, remedial education services and mental health services. Qualitative interviews explored young people’s experiences of services, their key transitions, their coping capacities, and the strategies they used to locate support and resources to mitigate the effects of harmful events and environments. There were three stages to the qualitative phase of the study; this article draws on the interviews from stage one and two. It explores the idea of resistance which emerged as a key theme in the data analysis. Three thematic clusters are presented: the nature of young people’s resistance; practitioner responses to resistance; and harnessing resistance in interventions. The article concludes with a discussion of how social workers and other practitioners can understand resistance and build more responsive and meaningful relationships with vulnerable youth.     

The effects of parental involvement on academic performance of Ghanaian youth: Testing measurement and relationships using structural equation modeling

Research in developed countries suggests that parental involvement is associated with youth academic success. However, little is known about the overall impact of parental involvement on youth academic performance in developing countries. Further, it is unclear what type of parental involvement impacts the academic performance of youth from developing countries. This study examines whether parental involvement at home and school are meaningfully different constructs in a population of Ghanaian youth and their parents, and whether parental involvement predicts academic performance. Results suggest a multidimensional construct consists of home and school involvement. The effect of parental involvement on youth academic performance appears to be a function of the type of parental involvement. Home-based parental involvement is positively associated with academic performance, while school-based parental involvement is negatively associated with academic performance. Parental involvement in youth's education has important implications for academic performance. Parental involvement in education has the potential to model positive attitudes toward school as well as adaptive academic practices, thus sending the message to youth that school is important.     

Can Organized Youth Activities Protect Against Internalizing Problems Among Adolescents Living in Violent Homes?

Using longitudinal data from a subsample of Hispanic, African American, and White youth enrolled in the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (N = 1,419), we examined the effects of both parental involvement in domestic violence and youth participation in organized out‐of‐school‐time activities on internalizing symptoms during adolescence. We also examined the extent to which participation in organized activities protected youth against the internalizing consequences of domestic violence. We found that intensive participation in either afterschool programs or extracurricular activities was inversely associated with youth internalizing problems. Moreover, we found that intensive participation in afterschool programs weakened the association between parents' domestic violence and youths' internalizing problems.     

Childhood risk factors for persistence of violence in the transition to adulthood: a social development perspective

This study examined violent behavior from ages 13 to 21 and identified predictors at age 10. Logistic regression was used to assess predictors of developmental patterns of violence. The sample is from a study of 808 youth interviewed annually from age 10 to 16 years, and again at ages 18 and 21. Over 28% of the youth in the sample reported nonviolence throughout adolescence and into early adulthood. Most youth (55%) engaged in violence in adolescence but desisted from violence in early adulthood, while 16% persisted in violent behavior at age 21. Violence in adolescence was best predicted by male gender, Asian American ethnicity (a protective factor), childhood fighting, early individual characteristics, and early antisocial influences. Adult persistence of violence was best predicted by male gender, early school achievement (which was protective), and early antisocial influences. Early prosocial development was also protective against violence persistence for females. Implications for prevention are discussed.     

Gun violence exposure and trauma among rural youth

This study compared rural youth exposed to gun violence and rural youth not exposed to gun violence on a number of variables: anger, anxiety, dissociation, depression, posttraumatic stress, total trauma, violent behavior, parental monitoring, and levels of violence in the home, school, and community. One-fourth (25%) of the rural youth in this study reported having been exposed to gun violence at least once. Youth exposed to gun violence reported significantly more anger, dissociation, posttraumatic stress, and total trauma. In addition, youth exposed to the violence of guns reported significantly higher levels of violent behaviors and exposure to violence in other settings and also reported lower levels of parental monitoring. The present study contributes to the growing body of literature addressing the stereotype that rural communities are not immune to the violence of firearms. This stereotype acts as a barrier to mental health practice, research, and policy issues in rural communities.