Stress: the perceptions of social work lectures in Britain

Summary Stress has been a focus of attention for several years amongvarious professional groups, including social work. However,only limited attention has been given to stress experiencedby academics and even less to social work lecturers. This paperexamines job satisfaction, felt pressure and stress amongstsocial work lecturers in the United Kingdom. It looks at demands,supports and constraints, psychological well-being, the impactof the department and the institution, and changes that mightalleviate stress. The results obtained are compared, where possible,with studies of social workers and, in particular, academicsin general. A 60-item postal questionnaire was sent to all social work lecturersin the United Kingdom; 322 responses were received. Respondentsenjoyed undertaking a wide variety of tasks and apparently receivedvarying amounts of support from their managers. The social worklecturers experienced high levels of job satisfaction and stressscores were similar to those of the general United Kingdom population.But a significant proportion - one quarter - of social worklecturers were suffering from borderline levels of anxiety anddepression. Overall, social work lecturers' responses were morefavourable than the responses of other academics and socialworkers. In common with other research on stress, this studysuggests that pressure and stress should not be seen primarilyas individual problems, but as a product of interactions atteam, department and institutional levels, and at the home/workinterface.     

Predictors of Stress Amongst Social Workers: An Empirical Study

Correspondence to Professor John Collings, Faculty of Health and Social Care, Leeds Metropolitan University Calverley Street, Leeds, LS1 3HE, UK Summary Much of what is known about stress amongst social workers isanecdotal and there is a dearth of systematic research findingson the subject. This questionnaire study examined the perceptionsof work-related stress, and factors contributing to high andlow levels of stress, in a sample of 243 social workers drawnfrom four local authorities in northern England. The samplewas broadly based in terms of a range of personal backgroundfactors, and included social workers in urban, rural and semi-rurallocations. A measure of overall stress was constructed encompassingpsychological and physical aspects, and which permitted an analysisof the relative importance of predictor variables. A varietyof rating scales was used to assess aspects of the work environmentand perceived stressors. The most powerful predictor of overallstress that emerged related to the pressure involved in planningand reaching work targets. The study also identified certaincaseload and supervision-related predictors of stress, but,apart from age and marital status, personal background factorsseemed of weak predictive power. Social workers' perceptionsof their image in society seemed an additional source of pressure.The study findings suggest a need for combining organizationalwith individual oriented initiatives to combat stress.     

Child Abuse, Social Anxiety and Welfare

Summary This article attempts to locate the ‘moral panic’concerning child abuse within the context of broader changesin the material conditions and ideological forces in Britainin the early 1970s. It argues that the development of a senseof social anxiety amongst certain sections of the populationand the appeal of the New Right were crucial in the processof establishing the problem as the major issue for social workers.As a consequence social workers have been constrained into amore punitive and interventive relationship with children andfamilies, particularly the poor. The analysis illustrates thatthe way social workers experience role conflict and tensionin this area of their work reflects much wider historical andcultural confusions and contradictions.     

Social Work at the Crossroads

Summary The contribution of social work to society has always been contested.Social workers work with some of the most psychologically damagedand socially disadvantaged people, and are susceptible to publicdevaluing of the services they provide. Indeed, social workhas been subjected to an ever-increasing volume of public debateand criticism, and its claims to professional status are underthreat. Recent years have seen a constant attack on its valuesand principles, which has taken place at political, organizationaland professional levels. Social work practice has been subjectedto increased managerial control and social workers' levels ofautonomy have been reduced. This has created a sense of crisis,which has been experienced particularly within social servicesdepartments (SSDs), the main source of employment for socialworkers. The paper will argue that its survival as a recognizableprofessional activity is dependent on the extent to which itcan redefine its role within society, and re-establish clarityabout its overall purpose and function.     

The assessment relationship: interactions between social workers and parents in child protection assessments

Summary This paper is concerned with a relatively unresearched areaof child protection practice: the comprehensive assessment.The study comprises qualitative research of social workers conductingthese assessments. Sixteen assessments are analysed in detail.It is noted that these assessments, like many other in-depthsocial work assessments, are mainly based on verbal interactions.Some of the core evidence cited by social workers as formingthe basis of their assessment decisions is based on verbal interactionbetween social workers and parents. Such verbal interactionsare viewed as being inextricably intertwined with the socialworker-client relationship. A particular aspect of the relationship,the ability to agree a plausible explanation for the familysituation, is highlighted as particularly important in determiningthe outcome of the assessment. The possible implications ofthese findings for assessment practices are outlined.     

Social Workers Talking to Clients: A Comment

Summary I read Baldock and Prior's article with interest in view ofthe shortage of studies examining day-to-day practice in socialwork, but the authors' analysis leaves me reflecting uneasilyupon the state of uncertainty into which social work has fallen.The authors conclude by describing as ‘skilled’,practices which they say resulted in confusion for clients andwhich only apparently reflected social work principles. We arenot told whether the authors checked their analysis with workersor clients and it is possible that the clients were not as confusedas we are led to believe, given their long term contact withthe workers. If, however, the picture is an accurate one, shouldit really be described as representing skilled social work?Baldock and Prior do so but neglect to examine the ends towardswhich interviewing skill should be directed in social work.The result is a strangely ambiguous statement about practice,particularly in the light of research findings on effectivenessand client satisfaction, and one which offers little scope forcomplacency.     

An Evaluation of Social Support Intervention with Depressed Mothers in Child and Family Care

Correspondence to Professor Michael Sheppard, Department of Social Policy and Social Work, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth, Devon PL4 8AA, UK. Summary The significance of maternal depression to social work practicein child and family care has become increasingly apparent inrecent years. Social support, furthermore, is a concept (aswell as a reality) which provides a major focus for social workpractice. Indeed, social support, it is also clear, is of considerableimportance in helping prevent depression. This paper seeks toexamine social support work carried out by social workers inrelation to depressed mothers in child and family care. In particularit seeks to evaluate the quality of that intervention in thelight of key problem areas associated with high levels of supportneeds, the extent to which social workers target support needsthrough direct, indirect and informal supports, and the extentto which particular interventions are associated with a higheradequacy of support experienced by these depressed women. Thepaper finds a certain degree of haphazardness in social workers’targeting of support needs, although in some areas of indirectsupport, in particular, their targeting is reasonably accurate.There is little evidence of any one form of intervention beingassociated with more adequate support with one significant exception,relief care of children. The paper concludes that social workersneed to develop a keener awareness of support deficits so thatthey are targeted better; they need to monitor more carefullyinterventions carried out by other agencies and professionals;and they should look to relief care of children as a major formof intervention to support these women.     

General Practice, Social Work, and Mental Health Sections: The Social Control of Women

Michael Sheppard, Senior Lecturer in Social Work, Polytechnic South West, Drake Circus, Plymouth, Devon PL4 8AA. Summary A survey was undertaken of all referrals for compulsory admissionreceived by a city mental health centre over a one year period.The centre receives the overwhelming majority of all these referralsin the city. Referrals from GPs were compared with other referralsfocusing particularly on women. The results indicate GPs discriminatedagainst women, referring considerably more women than men withless emphasis on major (psychotic) mental illness. The involvementof approved social workers (ASWs) in the assessment processwas associated with diversion of many of the women away fromcompulsory admission, although even they appeared affected bypatriarchal assumptions. GPs' behaviour with regard to sectionsis consistent with reports about sexist practice in other areasof work. This, however, is particularly grave with sectionsbecause of civil liberties implications. The article concludesthat ASWs need be aware of potential sexist GP practice, thattheir psychosocial perspective is critical to assessment andthat ASW training should include gender issues.     

Government, Social Services Departments and the Health of Children and Young People: Which Way Forward?

Summary Despite the dearth of research into the health of children andyoung people in contact with or ‘looked after’ bylocal authorities, a series of official and quasi-official reportshave begun to raise awareness of this issue. There are goodreasons to believe that this group of children will be disadvantagedin terms of health as they are in other aspects of their lives.The evidence suggests that local authorities do not live upto the standards of ‘good parents’. Current notionsof good practice are critically appraised and the article concludesthat social work is unable to do more than mitigate the effectsof Government policies which affect health and social servicesand which have lead to widening social inequalities.     

Work Satisfaction in Probation and Social Work

Correspondence to Professor Martin Davies, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ. Summary The design and preliminary development of a research instrumentintended to provide comparable measures of work satisfactionwithin different social work settings is described. The resultsof administering it to two separate samples of social workersand probation officers are presented. It appears that probation officers feel themselves more highlyregarded by members of the general public and are less likelyto say they are badly paid; they enjoy more job autonomy; rathermore social workers tend to feel alienated at work, but mostbelieve that they have better chances of career advancementthan is the case in the probation service. There are broad similarities between the two work settings sofar as work with clients and attitudes towards colleagues areconcerned; it is argued that the emergence of these similaritiesis methodologically reassuring because it suggests the stabilityof the data overall, and therefore increases the likelihoodthat the findings regarding agency differences are a valid reflectionof social reality in each setting.     

'I Needed to be Told that I Hadn't Failed': Experiences of Violence Against Probation Staff and of Agency Support

Correspondence to Brian Littlechild, Division of Social Work, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane, Hatfield, Herts AL10 9AB Summary The research presented in this article was undertaken to establishthe extent of victimization of various groups of staff in thecounty of Hertfordshire's Probation Service. In particular,it aimed to examine issues of gender in relation to such victimization.Staff were invited to detail incidents which they had experienced,and what factors led them to decide what to do about such incidents.In particular, reasons for reporting—or not reporting—wereaddressed. The research also had the aim of analysing how staffviewed issues of violence from their own perspective, and theirsuggestions for improving safety at work in relation to suchviolence. The research demonstrates that, in the main, probationservice staff are safer than their counterparts in, for example,social services departments, and that they report incidentsof physical violence to a greater degree than other incidents.It highlights that sexual aggression is not uncommon, but islargely unreported. The research also shows that staff who havebeen victims have clear ideas of the support they should receive,and how agencies should respond in a positive manner to aggressors.     

Primary Health Care Workers' Views about Social Work

Summary SUMMARY A comparison of the views about social work held by 188 primaryhealth care workers—118 GPs, 31 health visitors and 39district nurses—working in the same teams is presentedhere.^* The study focussed particularly on their perceptionsof social workers, their role and performance. The data indicatea general acceptance of the social work role, but a lack ofknowledge of or extensive criticism about, social work performance.Significant differences of view emerged about social work training,role and clients, indicating occupation is a significant factorin perceptions held. In particular, the client group predominantlydealt with appears to have had an impact on perceptions. However,views about social work performance did not differ greatly,suggesting the influence of occupation on perceptions shouldnot be overstated.     

Compassion Satisfaction Among Social Work Practitioners: The Role of Work–Life Balance

Abstract

Previous research has established that social work practitioners are especially vulnerable to work-related psychological distress and burnout due to the high-stress nature of the profession, yet less research has focused on examining factors are associated with social worker retention. Emerging research on compassion satisfaction suggests that this factor could mitigate professional burnout, yet there is a gap in research focusing explicitly on examining compassion satisfaction among social workers. To address this gap in knowledge, this quantitative study collected survey data on practicing social workers who were alumni from a large southeastern university (n?=?120) to examine individual and organizational factors associated with compassion satisfaction. Multiple regression analyses revealed that higher levels of emotional intelligence, perceived work autonomy, and perceived work–life balance were associated with an increase in compassion satisfaction among experienced, licensed social work practitioners. Findings have implications for how social work employers can promote compassion satisfaction through cultivating emotional intelligence among practitioners, allowing social workers autonomy in decision making, and providing supportive work environments. Recommended directions for future research include longitudinal studies with large sample sizes that expound research on compassion satisfaction by examining the role of additional factors, such as client population, job role characteristics, and supervisor support.     

Dying and Bereavement, Spirituality and Social Work in a Market Economy of Welfare

Correspondence to Margaret Lloyd, School of Social Work, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL Summary This paper examines the contribution of social work practiceto the care of people who are dying or bereaved. It considerscurrent challenges to traditional practice arising from societaland organizational change, reaffirming the importance of thesocial work role but arguing that, in order to face those challenges,social workers must broaden their perspective to incorporatea spiritual dimension. The paper draws on a research study conductedby the author.     

Social Service Teams and their Managers

Summary A study is reported of the perceived effectiveness of teamsof social workers and their managers. Prior studies are reviewedand shown to give disproportionate emphasis to the supervisionelement in the manager's task. It is shown that in the sampleof teams studied the correlates of perceived team effectivenesswere quite different in area teams from those found in socialwork teams. Social work teams required a manager who was primarilysupportive, whereas in area teams the manager's role was foundto be less important than were group process variables.     

Social Work and the 'Missionary Zeal to Whip the Heathen Along the Path of Righteousness'

Correspondence to Amon Bar-On, Department of Social Work, University of Botswana, Private Bag 0022, Gaborone, Botswana. Summary Ever since Western forms of social work were first importedto Africa, a serious debate has been raging on whether theyfit the African context Most of this debate has concentrated,however, on the techniques of Western social work as opposedto the ends to which they are put, which, being underpinnedby Western values, are essentially alien to African culture.Applying Western social work in Africa can be viewed, therefore,as continuing the work of the missionaries who sought to remakeAfricans in their own image. Following a summary of the argumentswhy Africa might require a form of social work of its own, thisarticle explores the chances of such indigenization and concludesthat it might be nigh impossible unless research involving reflectivelearning by African social workers with their clients is placedat the centre of social work practice.     

Social Workers' Experiences of Fear

Correspondence to Dr Martin Smith, Emergency Duty Team, Katherine Knapp House, Stretton Close, Tylers Green, Bucks, HP10 8EW, UK. E-mail: msmith{at}buckscc.gov.uk Summary This paper argues that the impact of fear on social workersand social work practice is a relatively neglected topic thatdeserves attention. With this in mind a sample of 60 employeesof social services departments comprising home carers, rehabilitationofficers, receptionists, residential workers in children's homes,special hospital social workers and social workers working inNorthern Ireland were asked to talk of a time in their workwhen they had experienced fear. Eighty-two fears were reported.These comprised fear of being assaulted, fear of being killed,fear of losing control/being overwhelmed, and fear of disapprovaland rejection by seniors and managers. The social workers interviewedappreciated talking openly about their fears in a manner andcontext that was acceptable to them. It is recommended thatfurther work be undertaken to build upon this research so thatfear in the professional context becomes acknowledged as a realityand the need to share the experience becomes an accepted partof practice.     

Organizational Research and Social Work: Issues in Application Illustrated from the Case of Organic and Mechanistic Systems of Management

Summary An increasing number of social workers are concerning themselveswith the organizational context of social work and with theapplication of organizational research material to their sphere.This article focuses upon a particular industrial study andcritically examines the recommendations by three writers, ofthe introduction in social services departments of an organizationalform identified in the study. As well as suggesting some implicationsof the study for social work, the discussion illustrates thekinds of issues and complexities which can arise in the applicationof such material     

Medicalization of Social Workers in Mental Health Services in Hong Kong

Correspondence to Dr Kam-shing Yip, Associate Professor, Department of Applied Social Studies, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong. E-mail: ssksyip{at}polyu.edu.hk Summary Medical dominance is a crucial problem in social work practicein mental health services. This paper is an examination of theresponse of social workers to medical dominance in mental healthservices in Hong Kong. To explore the process and the effectsof medicalization of social workers, sixty-three social workersin various areas of mental health service settings were interviewed.Their reaction and daily performance in facing medical dominancewere analysed and evaluated. The findings show that facing medicaldominance was a common occurrence for social workers in variousmental health services in Hong Kong. Conflict existed betweenthe rationalization of medical knowledge by medical professionals,and social work rationalization of social work knowledge bysocial workers. The process of medicalization consisted of fivestages: ignorance of medical dominance, confronting medicaldominance, compromise with medical dominance, acceptance ofmedical dominance and internalization of medical dominance.The findings also show that medicalization was influenced bythe organizational and team context.     

Social Work and System Theory

Summary The contribution of general system theory to the understandingof social work method in a generic situation is considered.An account of general system theory is given indicating howhuman systems differ from other systems, taking their placein a larger continuum. The implications of the theory for socialwork are then examined with special reference to four levels.First there is the philosophical level, the view it presentsof man and society, as compared with other psychological andsociological theories. Secondly its contribution to the perspectiveof social workers, making them aware of the range of systemsthey should be considering. Thirdly its contribution to practicein providing a model of the structure of systems as a guideto appraisal and intervention. In this connection the modelis related to Lippitt's ‘diagnostic orientations’.Fourthly its contribution to the understanding of social workprocess is examined. In the conclusion it is suggested thatit is the contribution to the third level that justifies theexpenditure of effort in absorbing the theory.