Wage Differentials of Transportation Industries: Deregulation Versus Regulation

This article investigates the wage differentials of similar occupations in three for-hire transportation carrier industries, railroad, truck, and motor bus, under regulation and deregulation. The estimation results indicate that the union wage gaps among all occupations have widened under deregulation. Specifically, the union wages of railroad occupations have increased relative to those of truck drivers and the union wages of truck drivers have increased relative to those of motor bus drivers. Further, wage gaps for all occupations for this period are greater among nonunion than among union workers.     

Labor relations and technological change at Canadian Pacific Railway

There was a time in this fair land when the railroad did not run When the wild majestic mountains stood alone against the sun Long before the white man and long before the wheel When the green dark forest was too silent to be real For they looked into the future and what did they see They saw an iron road running from the sea to the sea Bringing the goods to a young growing land All up through the seaports and into their hands From “Canadian Railroad Trilogy” by Gordon Lightfoot The authors thank CPR managers and union officials representing CPR employees for their cooperation and patience in explaining the intricacies of the railroad industry. Special appreciation is extended to Jason Copping, Labour Relations Manager, for his facilitating our initial access to the company.     

Balancing regulation and affordability of housing

Housing regulation is a growing concern because affordability of housing has been declining and regulations which increase housing costs have been escalating. Many of the regulations which have been adopted fulfill goals of protection of health, safety, or welfare; preservation of the environment; or improved energy conservation. Little attention, however, has been paid to the effect of these regulations on affordability. This article reviews the role of government regulation on housing, and discusses the parameters of the affordability/regulatory issue.Helpful comments and suggestions were made by Vincent Brannigan, Bob Cleveland, Deborah Godwin, Roger Swagler, Anne Sweaney, and Frank Walter.Dr. Meeks received her Ph.D. from The Ohio State University and is interested in housing economics and policy, and the economic well-being of households.     

关于当前中国高速铁路建设与发展的思考

自2003年中国第一条准高速铁路秦沈客运专线开通到2010年6月京沪高铁开通运营,中国高速铁路以世界瞩目的速度在发展。高速铁路的开通拉近了城市间的距离,中国逐渐进入＂高铁时代＂,高铁经济也应运而生。但高速铁路在快速建设与发展过程中,也产生了一些值得思考的问题。我们在享受＂高铁＂带来便利的同时,也应反思与＂高铁经济＂相关的这些问题,以利于中国高速铁路建设和＂高铁经济＂的健康发展。     

Issues of quality and consumer rights in the health care market

This Issue Brief describes how the structure of the health care market has changed in the recent years. It outlines the growth in managed care and the changes in the types of managed care plans available. In addition, it discusses the issue of quality in the health care market. It also includes an overview of the legislative topics and issues relating to quality and consumer rights that policymakers are currently considering. Growth in national health expenditures, the medical care price index, and employer health care costs has slowed significantly since 1990. This decreased growth has coincided with substantial increases in managed care plan enrollment. The percentage of employees enrolled in managed care plans increased from 48 percent to 85 percent from 1992 to 1997. Quality is a multidimensional concept. Although individuals may agree on its components, they may disagree on the relative importance of these components. Therefore, disagreement exists not only on how to measure quality but also on how it is defined. Consequently, policy decisions need to be based on an evaluation of a particular law's effect as opposed to its stated goal or intent. This distinction is important because a law that addresses access or consumer rights does not necessarily address the quality of care a consumer receives. Ultimately, whether an individual believes that a law truly addresses quality will depend in a large part on his or her subjective opinion of what quality entails. To date, comparison of the quality of managed care plans with that of fee-for-service plans has not produced results that uniformly differentiate between these two plan types in either a positive or a negative way. In addition, it is important to note that the current debate on the quality of care provided in the health care market is not new to the present managed care era. The regulations and mandates discussed in this report would not guarantee increased quality in the health care market, unless quality is defined as easier access for those with health insurance. However, if quality is defined as the success of the outcomes of health services provided, the effect of these regulations on quality is in need of further research. Yet, the regulations would have some impact on the costs of health benefits and insurance. This impact has been estimated to be relatively small to substantial, depending on the interpretation of the mandates and assumptions derived from that interpretation. Regardless of the magnitude of the estimated increases, some research has shown that these regulations could have serious implications for the likelihood of small businesses offering health benefits. While these health plan regulations effect on quality depends on one's definition of quality, costs would increase regardless of the definition one uses. Consequently, these regulations would come at a price. Thus, legislators must decide between: (a) imposing regulation that would increase access and consumer "rights" for those with insurance but would be of questionable value to the quality of outcomes, and (b) allowing existing market forces to improve quality through experimentation and competitive forces.     

Improvements in functional capacity from Nordic walking: a randomized-controlled trial among elderly people

This study examined the effects of an instructed structured Nordic walking (NW) exercise program on the functional capacity of older sedentary people. Volunteers were randomly assigned to an NW group (68.2 ± 3.8 yr old) or control group (69.9 ± 3.0 yr old). Before and at the end of the 9-wk intervention, functional tests and 2-dimensional ground-reaction-force (GRF) patterns of normal (1.40 m/s) and fast (1.94 m/s) walking speeds were measured. The intervention included a 60-min supervised NW session on an inside track twice a week for 9 wk. The mean changes in functional tests differed between groups significantly. Gait analyses showed no significant differences between the groups on any GRF parameters for walking speed either before or after the intervention. The study showed that NW has favorable effects on functional capacity in older people and is a suitable form of exercise for them.     

A multilevel analysis of change in neighborhood walking activity in older adults

The article reports on a multilevel analysis conducted to examine change in neighborhood walking activity over a 12-month period in a community-based sample of 28 neighborhoods of 303 older adults age 65 and over. The study employed a multilevel (residents nested within neighborhoods) and longitudinal (4 repeated measures over 1 year) design and a multilevel analysis of change and predictors of change in neighborhood walking activity. Results indicated a significant neighborhood effect, with neighborhood-level walking characterized by a downward trajectory over time. Inclusion of baseline variables using selected perceived neighborhood-level social- and physical-environment measures indicated that neighborhoods with safe walking environments and access to physical activity facilities had lower rates of decline in walking activity. The findings provide preliminary evidence of neighborhood-level change and predictors of change in walking activity in older adults. They also suggest the importance of analyzing change in physical activity in older adults from a multilevel or macrolevel framework.     

ALTERNATIVES FOR RESTRUCTURING THE RAILROADS: END-TO-END OR PARALLEL MERGERS?

The U.S. railroad industry has seen considerable merger activity over the past two decades and more mergers are expected in the near future, but little is presently known about the relative social benefits of alternative merger configurations. Using traffic data for origin-destination pairs affected by recent mergers, this paper examines the impact of end-to-end and parallel mergers on increases in the market share of merged firms. To the extent that increases in market share reflect social benefits in the form of improved service and lower costs, end-to-end mergers are found to outperform parallel mergers.     

Barriers and facilitators for walking in individuals with intermittent claudication

This study aimed to identify barriers and facilitators associated with walking for exercise among people who experience intermittent claudication. Fifteen individuals (7 men and 8 women) participated in 3 focus groups that were tape-recorded and content analyzed. A social-cognitive framework was used to categorize barriers and facilitators as those related to the person, to the activity, or to the environment. Variables identified included those specific to intermittent claudication and those common among the general population. Barriers to walking included irregular or graded walking surfaces, uncertainty about the outcome of walking, ambiguity regarding pain, the need to take rest breaks, and the presence of leg pain. Facilitating factors included availability of a resting place, use of cognitive coping strategies, companionship support, and availability of a treadmill-walking program. Findings are interpreted in light of current research on exercise determinants and encourage prospective examinations of the predictive validity of these factors for walking.     

Prospective analysis of time out-of-home and objectively measured walking duration during a week in a large cohort of older adults

Background

Physical activity is considered an effective measure to promote health in older people. There is evidence that the number of outdoor trips increases physical activity by increasing walking duration. The objective of this study was to analyse the relationship between daily time out-of-home and walking duration. Furthermore, predictors for walking duration and time out-of-home were evaluated.

Methods

Walking duration was measured prospectively over a 1 week period by a body-fixed sensor and the time out-of-home was assessed by a questionnaire at the same days. Seven thousand, two hundred and forty-three days from 1289 older people (mean age 75.4 years) with both sensor-based measures and completed questionnaires were included in the analyses. To account for several observation days per participant multilevel regression analyses were applied. Analyses were stratified according to the time out-of-home (more or less than 100 min/day).

Results

In the group with less than 100 min out-of-home, each additional minute out-of-home added 20 s to overall walking duration. If the time exceeded 100 min the additional increase of walking duration was only moderate or weak. Leaving the home once added 40 min of walking, the following trips 15 to 20 min. Increasing age, lower gait speed, comorbidities, low temperature, rain and specific week days (Sunday) decreased both the time out-of-home and walking duration. Other variables like gender (female), isolation or living with a spouse reduced the time out-of-home without affecting walking duration.

Conclusions

Being out-of-home increases daily walking duration. The association is strongest if the time out-of-home is 100 min or less.

     

Scientific Certainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs): Science and the Politics of Doubt*

At least since the time of Popper, scientists have understood that science provides falsification, but not “proof.” In the world of environmental and technological controversies, however, many observers continue to call precisely for “proof,” often under the guise of “scientific certainty.” Closer examination of real‐world disputes suggests that such calls may reflect not just a fundamental misunderstanding of the nature of science, but a clever and surprisingly effective political‐economic tactic—“Scientific Certainty” Argumentation Methods, or SCAMs. Given that most scientific findings are inherently probabilistic and ambiguous, if agencies can be prevented from imposing any regulations until they are unambiguously “justified,” most regulations can be defeated or postponed, often for decades, allowing profitable but potentially risky activities to continue unabated. An exploratory examination of previously documented controversies suggests that SCAMs are more widespread than has been recognized in the past, and that they deserve greater attention in the future.     

Walking Ability is Associated with Social Communication Skills in Infants at High Risk for Autism Spectrum Disorder

Achievement of early motor milestones in infancy affords new opportunities for social interaction and communication. Research has shown that both motor and social deficits are observed in infants who later develop autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This study examined associations between motor and Social communication skills in 12‐month‐old infant siblings of children with ASD who are at heightened risk for developmental delays (N = 86) and low‐risk, typically developing infants (N = 113). Infants were classified into one of three groups based on their walking ability: walkers (walks independently), standers (stands independently), or prewalkers (does not yet stand or walk independently). Social communication and cognitive skills were assessed with two standardized assessments (Communication and Symbolic Behaviors Scales [CSBS] and Mullen Scales of Early Learning) and compared across the three walking groups. Results demonstrated that high‐risk walkers showed superior Social communication skills, but commensurate cognitive skills, compared to high‐risk prewalkers. In contrast, Social communication and cognitive skills were largely comparable for low‐risk infants, regardless of walking status. Findings suggest that for high‐risk infants, who are already vulnerable to developmental delays and ASD, independent walking may facilitate the emergence of Social communication abilities. Pivotal motor milestones may serve as useful indicators of Social communication delays and targets for intervention.     

Looking for a ‘cure’: negotiating ‘walking’ in a Turkish rehabilitation hospital

This article explores discourses surrounding ‘walking’ in a Turkish rehabilitation hospital and their impact on in-hospital relationships, patients’ attitudes towards disability, and constructions of ‘bodily normality’. Interviews were conducted with 29 patients, 11 medical personnel, and two non-medical personnel. Three categories of discourses emerged. First, hope for walking is kept alive in doctor–patient relationships, either through a state of silence on the matter or an emphasis on time, determination, and faith in God. Second, patients are virtually assured of the retrieval of walking, mostly through interactions with fellow patients and their accompanying family members (refakatçis). Third, a possible non-walking future is highlighted, either within a framework closer to a disability rights perspective or through an emphasis on gratitude. Diverse discourses on walking emerge due to the informality of in-hospital practices. Still, the ‘normal body’ is predominantly reproduced as the ‘walking body’. Thus, patients refuse discharge before regaining the ability to walk.     

Health Benefits of Pets for Families

During the last decade, the common belief that pets are good for their owners has gained concrete scientific support. In this paper we review the evidence for the health benefits of pets, discuss the importance of pets in the family system, and explore the implications of this information for therapists. Pets play a variety of health promoting roles which are particularly important for individuals lacking support from family members or close friends. We present research evidence supporting the health benefits of pets ranging from the facilitation of social interaction while walking dogs to the physiological effects of the presence of animals on cardiovascular responses to mild stressors.     

PRODUCT SAFETY IN A REGULATED INDUSTRY: EVIDENCE FROM THE RAILROADS

It is sometimes argued that a relaxation of price controls in a regulated industry would lead to a decrease in profits and hence to an incentive for firms to skimp on safety. Theory does not allow us to sign the relationship between prices and safety a priori. Analysis of data from the railroad industry from 1963–67 indicates 1) profitable railroads have fewer accidents per mile than do unprofitable roads; 2) for profitable roads, if there is any relationship at all between accidents and profitability it is positive: more profitable roads have more accidents (per mile); and 3) for unprofitable roads, accident rates rise as losses rise.     

Health, balance, and walking as correlates of climbing steps

The aim of this study was to investigate walking and health among woman age 75 yr or older, in the associations between the highest step up performed without support by an individual and balance, walking, and health among women age 75+. Records of the highest step, balance, walking, and health were made for 307 women age 75-93 yr living in the community. Eighty percent managed to climb steps higher than 20 cm. There was a statistically significant negative relationship between age and stair-climbing capacity. The highest steps registered were significantly and independently associated with a short time on the timed up-and-go test, long functional reach, low body weight, lack of perceived difficulty walking outdoors, low number of "missteps" when walking in a figure of 8, longer time in one-leg stance, ability to carry out tandem stance, no walking aids outdoors, and not being afraid of falling. These variables together explained 67% of the variance in the step-height score.     

Dealing with power struggles in clinical and educational settings

When power struggles occur, the implications for early intervention are numerous. Trying to intervene with a person who has already reached the anger phase of crisis can often be like trying to stop a train by standing on the railroad tracks and holding up one's hands. As a direct result of early and purposeful intervention using simple and accessible techniques (i.e., self-awareness, awareness of others' messages, prioritization, decisiveness, consistency, communication), professionals can create an environment of safety and trust in which all individuals feel heard. In this manner, all needs can be addressed without allowing potentially negative interactions to escalate to levels at which restraints, ultimatums, and consequences are needed. In addition, the likelihood of success increases with early intervention. By recognizing that, in many cases, winning and losing power struggles is accomplished at the expense of treatment and educational goals, enlightened professionals can not only avoid future confrontations but also effect desired client or student outcomes.     

Regulation, market power, and labor earnings: Evidence from the cable television industry

Labor economists have suggested that employee earnings may be relatively higher in firms possessing market power, such as that which may stem from government regula-tion of prices or entry of firms. We test this hypothesis, which previously has been inves-tigated in the context of industries such as trucking and air transportation, using earnings data for the cable television industry. Our empirical findings suggest that cable TV employees capture some of the benefits producers receive from regulations restricting competition.     

A Cross‐National Investigation of the Relationship Between Infant Walking and Language Development

The acquisition of walking has recently been linked with infant language development (Walle & Campos, 2014). If this relation reflects the consequence of an epigenetic event, then it should be present regardless of when the infant typically begins to walk, the infant's culture, and the infant's native language. This study sought to replicate the previously reported link between walking and language development in American infants and investigate whether this relation exists cross‐nationally in typically developing Chinese infants exposed to Mandarin. Urban Chinese infants not only provide a distinct linguistic and cultural population in which to study this relation but also typically begin walking approximately 6 weeks later than American infants. Our results demonstrated that (1) walking infants in both the American and Chinese samples had greater receptive and productive vocabularies than same‐aged crawling infants, (2) differences between crawling and walking infants were proportionally similar in each sample, and (3) the walking‐language relation was present for both noun and non‐noun vocabularies. These findings provide further support of a relation between infant walking onset and language development, independent of age. Avenues for future research of the processes involved in this relation, as well as additional populations of interest to investigate, are discussed.     

From the Editor

While walking has long been implicated in ethnography and arts practice, in recent years it has become increasingly central as a means of both creating new embodied ways of knowing and producing scholarly narrative. This introduction explores this cross-disciplinary coalescence of interest in peripatetic practice. It raises a series of questions inspired by the walking/arts event, which was the starting point for this collection, as well as by the articles and works published in this special issue.