Effects of Gambling-Related Cues on the Activation of Implicit and Explicit Gambling Outcome Expectancies in Regular Gamblers

The current research examined whether the presentation of gambling-related cues facilitates the activation of gambling outcome expectancies using both reaction time (RT) and self-report modes of assessment. Gambling outcome expectancies were assessed by having regular casino or online gamblers (N = 58) complete an outcome expectancy RT task, as well as a self-report measure of gambling outcome expectancies, both before and after exposure to one of two randomly assigned cue conditions (i.e., casino or control video). Consistent with hypotheses, participants exposed to gambling-related cues (i.e., casino cue video condition) responded faster to positive outcome expectancy words preceded by gambling prime relative to non-gambling prime pictures on the post-cue RT task. Similarly, participants in the casino cue video condition self-reported significantly stronger positive gambling outcome expectancies than those in the control cue video condition following cue exposure. Activation of negative gambling outcome expectancies was not observed on either the RT task or self-report measure. The results indicate that exposure to gambling cues activates both implicit and explicit positive gambling outcome expectancies among regular gamblers.     

Examining the effects of gambling-relevant cues on gambling outcome expectancies

There is a consensus in the addictions literature that exposure to addiction-relevant cues can precipitate a desire to engage, or actual engagement, in the addictive behaviour. Previous work has shown that exposure to gambling-relevant cues activates gamblers’ positive gambling outcome expectancies (i.e. their beliefs about the positive results of gambling). The current study examined the effects of a new, arguably more ecologically valid cue manipulation (i.e. exposure to a gambling lab environment vs. sterile lab environment) on 61 regular gamblers’ explicit and implicit gambling outcome expectancies. The authors first tested the internal consistency of their implicit reaction time measure of gambling outcome expectancies, the Affective Priming Task. Split-half reliabilities were satisfactory to high (.72 to .88), highlighting an advantage of this task over other characteristically unreliable implicit cognitive measures. Unexpectedly, no predicted between-lab condition differences emerged on most measures of interest, suggesting that peripheral environmental cues that are not the focus of deliberate attentional allocation may not activate positive outcome expectancies. However, there was some evidence that implicit negative gambling outcome expectancies were activated in the gambling lab environment. This latter finding holds clinical relevance as it suggests that presenting peripheral gambling-related cues while treating problem gamblers may facilitate processing of the negative consequences of gambling.     

The relationship between explicit and implicit learning processes and probable pathological gambling

This paper reports the findings of a study of explicit and implicit learning and gambling with non-problem (n = 107), sub-clinical problem gamblers (n = 13), and probable pathological gamblers (n = 46). Two probability learning tasks modeled after gambling games and an artificial grammar task were used to explore how people learn patterns. In each of the two probability learning tasks, the outcome of the game was biased during the first part (learning phase) of the task. The results showed that many of the participants in the experimental conditions learned the bias and gradually unlearned the bias during the extinction phase of the study. Probable pathological gamblers showed less retention of the bias during two probability tasks and repeated the same errors during the artificial grammar task suggesting that they emphasize explicit learning strategies rather than implicit learning strategies. The results are consistent with the idea that pathological gamblers are more likely to utilize explicit rules than implicit rules.     

Demand for gambling: development and assessment of a gambling purchase task

Self-report purchase tasks are a novel approach examining the reinforcing value of addictive behaviour relative to increasing monetary costs required to access the addictive behaviour (i.e. demand). These measures reveal a positive relationship between the indices of demand and addiction problem severity and can elucidate factors associated with motivation for substance use. Gambling is an addictive behaviour that has not been examined using this paradigm. This study seeks to adapt and examine the purchase task for gambling behaviour. A gambling purchase task was devised that asked individuals how often per month they would gamble at various cover charges. Participants were 73 adults from the community with either gambling disorder (n = 28) or alcohol use disorder (n = 24) or were a healthy control (n = 21). Both the alcohol and gambling purchase tasks were administered. Results demonstrate discriminant validity of the gambling purchase task, as individuals with gambling disorder have significantly greater demand for accessing gambling than other groups. The alcohol purchase task also evidenced discriminant validity in that individuals with alcohol use disorder have significantly greater demand for alcohol than other groups. These findings support the use of the gambling purchase task to assess the demand for gambling.     

Economic mobility moderates the effect of relative deprivation on financial gambling motives and disordered gambling

This study examined whether a positive association between personal relative deprivation and disordered gambling severity is mediated by the motivation to gamble for financial gain. We hypothesized that this would occur specifically among people who perceived a low personal capacity for upward economic mobility via conventional means of advancement. A sample of community gamblers (N = 196) completed measures of personal relative deprivation, perceptions about upward economic mobility, gambling motivations (financial, coping, enhancement and social) and disordered gambling severity. The predicted moderated mediation model was observed – among people who perceived a low capacity for upward economic mobility, relative deprivation predicted disordered gambling severity via the motivation to gamble for financial gain. This indirect effect did not hold among people who perceived a high capacity for upward mobility. These findings suggest the importance of addressing beliefs about upward economic mobility in gambling prevention and intervention strategies. Among gamblers who feel relatively deprived, it may be advantageous to highlight feasible avenues for upward economic mobility that do not involve gambling.     

Me,myself and money: having a financially focused self-concept and its consequences for disordered gambling

The article describes a test of the hypothesis that some people’s self-concept is overly focused on financial success and that this focus contributes to disordered gambling. Study 1 reported on the development and validation of the Financially Focused Scale (FFS) with a sample of community gamblers (N = 197). As predicted, participants whose self-concept was financially focused attached greater importance to the money they possess as a domain of self-worth. They also indicated that the money they possess is a more important domain of self-worth relative to other life domains. Importantly, greater financial focus was a positive predictor of disordered gambling severity and did so over and above other known predictors of disordered gambling severity (i.e. personal income, Big-Five personality domains, global self-esteem, personal relative deprivation and materialism). Study 2 (N = 220) replicated and extended the findings of Study 1 by examining the motivational mechanisms that may link being financially focused with disordered gambling severity. As hypothesized, monetary gambling motives mediated the relationship between participants’ FFS scores and disordered gambling severity. Having a financially focused self-concept may play a critical role in the development and maintenance of disordered gambling. Addressing this self-concept in treatment may help alleviate gambling disorder.     

Associations between gambling,substance misuse and recidivism among Canadian offenders: a multifaceted exploration of poor impulse control traits and behaviours

Moderate correlations among gambling, substance use and crime suggest these three behaviours may each be indicators of a single underlying problem trait, such as poor impulse control. We tested whether self-reported traits prospectively predicted future criminal recidivism, when accounting for incarcerated adult offenders' past criminal behaviour, substance use and gambling behaviour. We took a multi-construct approach to measuring components of impulse control, utilizing three questionnaires that assess sensation seeking, poor premeditation, and reward sensitivity. Male participants incarcerated in two federal institutions were invited to complete self-report booklets; participation was self-selected and fully voluntary. Results indicated moderate correlations between measures of trait impulse control, self-reported drug use, and official criminal history (N = 140). Gambling problems prospectively predicted post-release criminal recidivism (n = 83), even when accounting for past criminal behaviour, impulse control traits and substance misuse. Although they represent a small percentage of this sample, results suggest offenders with high gambling problems represent a particularly at-risk group for future crime, who were more than four times likely to reoffend compared to offenders without problem gambling. These results suggest there may be mutual impact of problem behaviours on life outcomes above the contribution of poor impulse control.     

Predictors of help-seeking for gambling disorder from the transtheoretical model perspective

Few gamblers seek treatment despite the severe negative impacts prolonged gambling can have. Research surrounding the predictors of help-seeking for problem gambling is often retrospective in design and inconsistent in findings. This study prospectively investigated whether transtheoretical model (TTM) constructs (readiness to change, ratings of temptations and self-efficacy, decisional balance and processes of change) have utility in predicting help-seeking among disordered gamblers. Community-recruited disordered gamblers (N = 136; 47.06% female; mean age = 44.5 years, SD = 12.8; 80.1% Caucasian) completed three assessments of TTM constructs, help-seeking behaviour, gambling problem severity, and other potential predictors of help-seeking. Informal help-seeking was common (6-month = 71.1%; 12-month = 79.6%); however, formal help-seeking was relatively infrequent (6-month = 22.7%; 12-month = 35.1%). Logistic regression demonstrated that gambling problem severity and the social liberation process of change (i.e. endorsing public awareness of gambling problems or non-gambling role models) consistently predicted formal help-seeking. Helping relationships and counter-conditioning (i.e. engaging in other activities as a replacement for gambling) processes of change uniquely predicted informal help-seeking at 12 months. Individuals most likely to seek formal help have greater problem severity and greater readiness to address problems. Seeking informal help is less predictable but more common.     

Gambling motivation: comparisons across gender and preferred activity

People gamble for emotional, social and monetary reasons. However, it remains unclear whether the relationships between these distinct aspects of gambling motivation and gambling behaviour hold across gender and types of gambling. Thus, the current study compared gambling motivation across different subgroups while taking into account problem gambling severity. A total of 4945 adults were recruited as part of the Northern Territory (Australia) population gambling survey. Of the full sample, 1207 participants (52% female) completed the Gambling Outcomes Expectancies Scale to assess gambling motivation. This subsample comprised those who scored one or more on the PGSI (n = 407) and a random sample of those who gambled at least once a year with a PGSI of zero (n = 800). The findings revealed excitement, escape and monetary expectancies increased in concert with gambling risk for both men and women, although only escape differentiated the low-risk and at-risk gamblers when other expectancies were controlled. In relation to differences across types of gambling, horse races/sports bettors rated excitement but not escape more favourably than lottery players. These findings suggest problem gambling severity should be considered when examining motivation difference by gender and that gambling motivation depends, in part, on preferred activity.     

Assessing the effectiveness of a responsible gambling behavioural feedback tool for reducing the gambling expenditure of at-risk players

The current study assessed the utility of a responsible gambling (RG) tool that provides players with behavioural feedback about their gambling. Data was obtained from 779 people (n = 694 male; n = 85 female) who gambled online with Svenska Spel (the Swedish gambling operator) and who opted to receive behavioural feedback via an RG tool (Playscan). Importantly, data was also obtained from a matched sample of 779 players who did not opt to receive behavioural feedback. Feedback took the form of a colour-coded risk rating (Green = no issues, Yellow = at-risk, Red = problematic), which was determined by a proprietary algorithm. Additionally, gambling expenditure data (amounts deposited and wagered) was gathered for the week in which players enrolled to use the RG tool, the subsequent week and 24 weeks later (this data was also gathered for the matched sample). Results showed that Yellow (i.e. at-risk) players who used the tool significantly reduced the amounts of money deposited and wagered compared to players who did not use the tool – an effect observed the week following enrolment as well as 24 weeks later. Thus, informing at-risk players who have opted to receive feedback about their gambling appears to have a positive impact on subsequent expenditures.     

Development of an assessment tool to evaluate the risk potential of different gambling types

Based on different characteristics of gambling types, this study aimed to develop an assessment tool to evaluate the risk potential of available and planned gambling types in German-speaking countries. In the first module, 26 experts were interviewed over the course of a Delphi study, and an analysis of those results led to the selection of relevant characteristics and scaling values. Building on the first module, the second module consisted of standardized data collection of nonproblem, problem and pathological gamblers (characteristics: n = 363; scales: n = 356), which served as an empirical validation. Ten characteristics were identified with different weights and differentiated scaling values to evaluate the risk potential, and a psychometric validation indicated that the assessment tool was reliable (α = 0.91; r _ik  = 0.50; r _it  = 0.33–0.80). The correlation measures from data of epidemiological studies (R ² = 0.84) and a treatment survey (p < 0.001) demonstrated that the assessment tool was valid. This assessment tool, which was verified by psychometric validation, can serve the legislation and jurisdiction, the gaming industry and consumers as a future basis for risk evaluation of gambling types.     

Defining a threshold of harm from gambling for population health surveillance research

The measurement of harm in the context of non-problem gambling has received little attention from researchers in the field. Using the combined data from six provincial gambling surveys conducted in Canada between 2001 and 2005 (N = 12,285), we compared how different thresholds of defining gambling-related harm impacts prevalence, the relationship with indicators of gambling intensity and the characteristics of non-pathological gamblers who report experiencing below threshold symptoms of problem gambling. Survey items defining harm were drawn from the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) of the Canadian Problem Gambling Index. Three definitions of harm – reporting one or more problem gambling symptoms, reporting two or more problem gambling symptoms and having a PGSI score ≥ 3 – demonstrated a strong relationship with indicators of gambling intensity, and reliably differentiated low-threshold and zero symptom problem gamblers in terms of gambling characteristics and other risk factors.     

Personality and psychographics of three types of gamblers in the United States

Using the results of the Experian Marketing Services' Simmons^® National Consumer Study (NCS) (N₀ = 24,581), this paper studies the characteristics of three types of US. gamblers: regular lottery players (N₁ = 1100), heavy casino gamblers (N₂ = 636) and online gamblers (N₃ = 291). We explore each type of gambler using measures of several personality and psychographic variables: impulsiveness, desire for control, materialism, risk taking, self-centredness, introversion, sensation seeking and financial prudence. We find that while all three groups have elevated levels of impulsiveness and materialism relative to non-gamblers (p < 0.01), most noteworthy are the online gamblers, who have higher levels of risk taking, desire for control, self-centredness and sensation seeking compared to casino gamblers, lottery players and non-gamblers (p < 0.01). This study additionally emphasizes the importance of considering demographics when investigating psychographics, as some of the psychographics related to gambling are conditioned on age. In addition, we find that online gamblers who also engage in other forms of gambling may be distinct from those who do not, suggesting they are not a homogeneous group.     

The temporal relationship between gambling related beliefs and gambling behaviour: a prospective study using the theory of planned behaviour

The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) has been successfully employed to investigate the role of gambling-related beliefs in the maintenance of gambling behaviour. However, there is a lack of research that examines the temporal relationships between the TPB predictor variables and gambling behaviour. Thus, the current study examines the utility of expectancies, normative beliefs, perceived behaviour control and gambling intentions in predicting gambling frequency, as assessed 12 months later. In addition, these gambling-related beliefs were reassessed at the 12-month follow-up survey to examine their stability and relationships with gambling behaviour. A total of 805 Australian adults, recruited via an online research panel, completed the baseline and follow-up online survey. Consistent with expectations, gambling-related beliefs explained gambling intentions and intentions predicted Wave 2 gambling frequency, after controlling Wave 1 gambling frequency. In relation to the stability of gambling-related beliefs, the Wave 2 measures explained additional variance in the Wave 2 gambling behaviour, although the type of beliefs associated with Wave 2 gambling frequency and problem gambling severity differed. These findings provide support for the notion that the perceived benefits of gambling and beliefs in skill are important areas to target in preventative and problem gambling initiatives.     

Co-morbidity of gambling and Internet use among Internet and land-based gamblers: classic and network approaches

This study investigated co-morbidity of problem gambling and problematic Internet use (PIU) among adolescent Internet and land-based gamblers, with the classic approach using sum-scores of symptoms and a promising new method, namely the network perspective. This perspective allows testing for how multiple disorders are associated, showing symptoms overlap and centralities. We used cross-sectional data from two population-based samples of adolescents aged 17 years in France (n = 2,240) and Switzerland (n = 944). Measures included Internet gambling, problem gambling and PIU. The classic approach showed that Internet gambling was associated with increased levels of disordered gambling and PIU, but that correlations between disorders were weak (R² min = 3.2%, R² max = 17.6%). The network perspective showed that the co-morbid network of Internet gamblers was more connected in comparison with land-based gamblers. Problem gambling and PIU appeared as separate disorders, but their relationship was increased among Internet gamblers in comparison with land-based gamblers. The network perspective appeared as a promising avenue for a better understanding of addictive disorders, but it should not replace the classic approach, which showed increased levels of addictive behaviours among Internet gamblers.     

Raising the legal gambling age in Finland: problem gambling prevalence rates in different age groups among past-year gamblers pre- and post-implementation

This article reports on the frequency of problem gambling, measured with the Lie/Bet instrument, in different age groups among Finnish past-year gamblers in 2011 (n = 2984) and 2014 (n = 2326). The data highlights the situation before, and three years after, the implementation of a raised minimum age limit for gambling from 15 to 18 years. The difference in problem gambling frequency when comparing all age groups was statistically significant in 2011, but not in 2014. A significantly lower frequency of problem gambling was found among 18–19-year-olds in 2014 (3.4%), compared to 2011 (16.3%). The results regarding problem gambling prevalence among 15–17-year-olds (8.0% in 2011, 0.0% in 2014) are somewhat inconclusive as the number of respondents fulfilling the criteria for problem gambling was zero in 2014, thus affecting the analysis. No statistically significant difference in problem gambling frequency was found among 20–21-year-olds (a group less affected by the policy implementation) – or other older age groups – between the survey years. While the findings should be viewed with caution, they do support recommendations regarding a minimum gambling age of 18 years or higher as an effective harm-minimization measure.     

Problem gambling in poker: money,rationality and control in a skill-based social game

The article explores problem gambling in poker. The distinctions between chance and skill and between bank games and social games are applied to demonstrate how poker is structurally different from most other gambling games. Bank games are organised around a central actor such as the house, the casino or the bookmaker. In social games, players compete against each other on equal statistical footing. Poker is a skill-based social game where players with superior skills may be expected to win even in the long run. Fourteen poker playing problem gamblers were recruited through a treatment program and 15 professional and recreational poker players were recruited through snowball sampling (N = 29). Through qualitative interviews, the paper shows that the particular structural composition of poker has implications for the ways problem gambling arises in poker players. It is argued that poker challenges existing theoretical conceptions about problem gambling relating to money, rationality and control.     

Attitudes toward gambling among adolescents

It is well documented that attitudes toward gambling are a good predictor of problem gambling during adolescence. However, so far, little is known about what factors are associated with adolescents' gambling attitudes. This study used cross-sectional data (N = 2055, response rate 70.4%) from a representative sample of 17-year-olds in Norway to investigate the relationship between demographic, personality, motivational and social variables and gambling attitudes. Overall, adolescents' attitudes toward gambling were slightly negative. A multivariate analysis revealed that more favourable attitudes toward gambling were most strongly associated with family/peer approval of gambling. In addition, significant associations were found for gender (males more favourable); Sensation Seeking (positive association); Agreeableness (negative association); and family/peer gambling history (positive association for lifetime gambling, negative association for problematic gambling). Although a variety of individual-level and social factors are associated with more favourable attitudes toward gambling, it appears that family and peer approval of gambling are most important.     

Development and validation of the Chinese adolescent gambling expectancy scale

Gambling expectancies have been reported to be an important variable in adolescents' gambling behaviours. However, little is known regarding the role of gambling expectancies among Chinese adolescents. This study aimed to identify Chinese adolescents' expectancies for gambling and to evaluate their relation to gambling behaviours. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were performed which confirmed that a five-factor model was a good fit for the data. The five factors – namely, social benefits, relational costs, material gain, being out of control, and money loss – were revealed. The findings demonstrate the importance of understanding gambling behaviours within specific cultural contexts.     

Reduced inhibitory control predicts persistence in laboratory slot machine gambling

Impairments in inhibitory control characterize a range of addictive behaviours including gambling disorder. This study investigated the relationship between a neuropsychological measure of inhibitory control and behaviour on a simulated slot machine that included a measure of gambling persistence, in a non-clinical sample of regular gamblers. Regular gamblers (n = 75) performed a laboratory slot machine task for 30 trials where they could win real money, followed by a persistence phase under extinction (i.e. without wins). Participants also completed a stop-signal task, along with measures of gambling-related cognitions, social desirability, and symptoms of disordered gambling. In hierarchical regression models, reduced inhibitory control was found to predict greater persistence and a higher subjective desire to play again after both wins and near-misses (i.e. unsuccessful outcomes close to the jackpot). These data illustrate the impact of low inhibitory control on relevant behavioural tendencies in a group of regular gamblers. Our results help elucidate a cognitive process that may contribute to problem gambling, with implications for screening and treatment.