Work,parenting and gender: the care–work negotiations of three couple relationships in the UK

Changes globally mean that there are now record numbers of mothers in paid employment and a reported prevalence of involved fathering. This poses challenges to mothers and fathers as they negotiate care–work practices within their relationships. Focusing on interviews with three heterosexual couples (taken from a wider UK qualitative project on working parents), the paper considers care–work negotiations of three couples, against a backdrop of debates about intensive mothering and involved fathering. It aims to consider different configurations of work and care within three different couple relationships. We found that power within the relationships was negotiated along differential axis of gender and working status (full- or part-time paid work). We present qualitatively rich insights into these negotiations. Framed by a critical discursive psychological approach, we call on other researchers to think critically about dominant discourses and practices of working, caring and parenting, pointedly how couples situated around the world operationalise these discourses in talking about themselves as worker and carers.     

Beyond The Father Wound: Memory‐Work And The Deconstruction Of The Father–son Relationship

This article examines how profeminist men in a collaborative inquiry group used memory‐work to make sense of their experiences of discontent with their fathers. It challenges the current conceptualisation of this dissatisfaction with fathers as ‘the father wound’ and the emphasis on encouraging men to forgive their fathers unilaterally for what they have done. The article also challenges the view that boys need to identify with their fathers to establish their gender identity and suggests that sons can construct their masculine subjectivity through dis‐identification with patriarchal fathers and through empathy with the experiences of their mothers.     

Recruiting fathers to parenting programs: Advice from dads and fatherhood program providers

The benefits of high-quality father–child relationships for fathers and children alike are well documented. While evidence suggests parenting programs can improve the quality of father–child relationships, few fathers participate in such programs. This qualitative study aims to fill the gap in knowledge on best practices for recruiting urban African American fathers, a group of fathers with unique parenting challenges, to parenting programs. Focus groups were conducted with 29 fathers to gain their perspectives on recruitment strategies. Semi-structured interviews were also conducted with a nationwide sample of 19 fatherhood program providers to learn about their most successful recruitment strategies. Recruitment strategies based on emergent themes from the focus groups and interviews are presented here. Themes included using word-of-mouth recruitment, increasing advertising, targeting advertising specifically to urban African American fathers, providing transportation and incentives, recruiting through the courts, collaborating with other community agencies, and offering parenting programming along with other programming valued by fathers such as employment assistance. Implications for developing strategies for recruiting urban African American fathers to parenting programs are discussed.     

Adolescent Fathers: What We Know and What We Need to Know

Research into adolescent parenting involvement has focused primarily on mothers while neglecting fathers. This article concentrates on factors that influence the parental involvement of adolescent fathers. These factors must be acknowledged and addressed by practitioners working with adolescent parents. Issues relevant to the parental involvement of African-American adolescent fathers are highlighted in order to balance the negative portrayal this particular group continues to experience. Implications and suggestions for social work practitioners, policy makers, and social researchers are also discussed.     

The impact of childcare responsibilities on part-time or single fathers

The study described in this article was designed to determine the effects of childcare involvement on the lifestyles of fathers with young children. One hundred and twenty-seven separated or divorced men were interviewed. Their parental responsibilities ranged from full custody or joint custody to weekends or monthly visits. For the most part these men represented a middle class, highly educated, urban population. The primacy of work and occupational roles in the lives of the fathers was challenged by the contractual obligations of parenting. Fathers who spent time with their children had the opportunity to work out some crisis issues of divorce such as control, interdependence, and self-image. It was found that postdivorce parenting is an important source of resocialization for men in areas of work orientation and personal relationships. It is expected that this new functioning will have positive effects on the structure of reconstituted (i.e., second marriage) families.     

Social and Demographic Characteristics of Gay,Lesbian, and Heterosexual Adults with and Without Children

SUMMARY

This is the first study to compare lesbian mothers (n = 150), lesbians without children (n = 236), heterosexual mothers (n = 175), heterosexual women without children (n = 38), gay fathers (n = 40), gay men without children (n = 163), heterosexual fathers (n = 157), and heterosexual men without children (n = 32) on social and demographic characteristics. Demographic differences included age, education, length of relationship, religion, and geographic location. Only 28% of gay fathers and 37% of lesbian mothers had at least one child from their current relationship. For women the most important factor in predicting contact with family of origin was sexual orientation, while for men it was parenting status. More gay and lesbian parents had disclosed their sexual orientation than those without children. Gay fathers reached most milestones in the coming-out process between 2.5 and 4 years later than gay men without children, while lesbian mothers reached all milestones in the coming-out process 3 to 5 years later than lesbians without children. Lesbian mothers who had children before coming out reached developmental milestones 4 to 8 years later than lesbian mothers who had children after coming out.     

Parenting Under Pressure: Experiences of Parenting While Aging Out of Foster Care

Youth “aging out” of foster care experience higher rates of adolescent parenting than their peers who have not been in care. Due to their history of maltreatment, high adolescent pregnancy rates, and poor psychosocial outcomes, youth aging out who are parents are a vulnerable at-risk group. This study examines the parenting experiences of 33 youth aging out (21 mothers and 12 fathers) using data from a larger ethnography. Field notes of observation and transcribed interviews of youth aging out who are parents were analyzed using open coding strategies. Findings show parents encountered challenges while aging out and parenting, yet they found joy in their children and strived to be good parents despite having limited parenting skills, few resources, and little support. Desiring a better life for their children and fearing their children would enter foster care, parents were motivated to improve their lives for their children. Implications are discussed.     

Mothers’ and Fathers’ Ratings of Parental Involvement: Views of Married Dual-Earners with Preschool-Age Children

In this paper, we examine how married dual-earner mothers and fathers of preschool-age children rate their own involvement in parenting, and their spouse’s involvement in parenting. Five dimensions of parenting are examined: discipline, support for spouse, spending time with children, praise and affection, and attentiveness. Several comparisons between mothers’ and fathers’ ratings are made. We find that both mothers and fathers rated themselves most highly on praise and affection and lowest on discipline and also rated their spouse least favorably in terms of discipline. In general, mothers were more generous in their ratings of fathers, than fathers were in their ratings of mothers. These findings are discussed in light of self-determination theory, which is used to frame our analysis.     

Evening and night work schedules and children's social and emotional well-being

ABSTRACT

An emerging body of evidence shows that parents’ non-standard work schedules have a detrimental effect on children's well-being. However, only a limited number of studies have investigated mediating factors that underpin this association. Likewise, only a few studies have examined the impact of fathers’ non-standard work schedules on children's well-being. Based on data from the Families in Germany Study (FiD), this study aimed to address these research gaps. The sample consists of parents and their children at ages 7–8 and 9–10 (n?=?838 child observations in dual-earner families). The data were collected in the years 2010–2013. Non-standard work hours were defined as working in evenings and or at night (every day, several times a week, or changing as shifts). Children's social and emotional well-being was measured with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). The findings show that both mothers’ and fathers’ evening and night work schedules are linked to an increase in children's externalizing and internalizing behavior and that this association is partially mediated by mothers’ and fathers’ harsh and strict parenting, with a stronger mediation effect for fathers parenting.     

Sources of parenting support in early fatherhood: Perspectives of United States Air Force members

We conducted semi-structured focus groups with men in the United States Air Force (N = 39) to examine fathers' access to parenting information during the transition to parenthood, and to determine methods for engaging fathers in intervention. Results of content analysis highlight fathers' motivation to develop and maintain positive relationships with their partners and children despite substantial challenges, including multiple deployments, family moves, and demanding work responsibilities. Fathers emphasize the importance of information in facilitating the transition to parenthood, especially in the key domains of effective co-parenting and communication, children's developmental milestones, and appropriate use of discipline. Results underscore that men tend to rely more on informal sources of parenting information (e.g., spouse/partner, family members, friends) than on formal sources of information (e.g., pediatricians, social workers).     

The Father as an Idea: A Challenge to Kinship Boundaries by Single Mothers

In separating parenthood from partnership, women have created new family forms in which men may be involved but not as traditional fathers. Through in‐depth interviews with single middle‐class women, I compare families created with anonymous donors to those created with known donors. In the former cases, mothers craft imagined fathers as their children become “looking glasses” into the men they will probably never meet. These children must rely on the mothers’ imagination to create a sense of the fathers’ view of them. While known donors are not “dads” either, the mothers help these children imagine positive fathers, often through more concrete, personal knowledge, and these fathers often know the children from a distance. In an interesting manner, although children may be created without men as physically present “dads,” women contextualize the donors that allowed them to become mothers through acknowledging the social ways that blood kinship creates families. They ultimately reaffirm certain kinds of kinship rather than challenge them.     

Evaluation of the impact of the Webster‐Stratton Parent‐Child Videotape Series on participants in a Midlands town in 2001–2002

Small groups of parents experiencing problems in managing the behaviour of young children took part in parenting programmes in a Midlands city in 2001–2002 based on the Webster Stratton Parent‐Child Videotape Series. Programmes were evaluated using standardised measures and qualitative data. Most participants who completed the programme (N = 29) in this small scale study had improved scores on all measures. The largest (positive) effects were in reductions in mean total parenting stress levels. Qualitative data confirmed high participant ratings for the facilitators and appreciation for group support; and indicated that partners' views were an important variable. Further research is needed about programme impact on non‐completers (including fathers and minority ethnic participants) and about the influence of non‐participating partners.     

A Friend and a Brother: Understanding the Role of African American Men in Child-Rearing

ABSTRACT

Utilizing a strength-based model, this study examined child-rearing competencies among African American fathers, both resident and nonresident, and male caregivers. Fifty-three African American parents were interviewed about the positive role played by men in the lives of their children. A subsample of 11 fathers provided information on their parenting values and behaviors. Findings included substantial involvement by these men, well described goals for parenting, and useful parenting techniques. The study suggests that work with African American families would benefit from expanding the focus to include men more centrally.     

Depressive Symptoms and Father Involvement in Canada: Evidence from a National Study

Paternal involvement in instrumental and emotional parenting behaviours benefits families and children. While fathers have become more involved in childrearing over the past several decades, significant variability in paternal involvement with children remains. Yet, little work has focused on the facilitators and barriers to involved fathering and work in the Canadian context is particularly sparse. This study focuses on one potentially important factor, depressive symptoms, and its relationship with multiple dimensions of father involvement among Canadian men. Using national quantitative data from the Survey of Canadian Fathers‐Enquête des Pères Canadiens (n = 2,099) and ordinary least squares regression models, we focus on the relationship between depressive symptoms and six measures of fathering behavior. Results indicate that depression is significantly associated with most behaviours, but these results diverge from studies in other countries and contexts. Overall, our findings underscore the importance of context‐specific studies on parenting and the need for additional work on fathering and mental health in Canada.     

Scaling Back and Finding Flexibility: Gender Differences in Parents' Strategies to Manage Work–Family Conflict

Studies show that fathers report work–family conflict levels comparable to mothers. The authors examine gender differences in work‐related strategies used to ease such conflicts. The authors also test whether the presence of young children at home shapes parents' use of different strategies. They address these focal questions using panel data from the Canadian Work, Stress, and Health study (N = 306 fathers, 474 mothers). The authors find that mothers with young children are more likely to scale back on work demands when compared with fathers with young children, but mothers and fathers with older children are equally likely to pursue these strategies. Furthermore, women with young children and men with older children are more likely to seek increased schedule control as a result of work–family conflict when compared with their parent counterparts. The authors situate these findings in the vast literature on the consequences of work–family conflict.     

Swedish fathers choosing part-time work

In Sweden, both parents have a legal right to reduce their working hours to 30 hours per week. Quantitative analysis of 20,000 Swedish parents with children aged between 2 and 7, however, shows mothers to be 14 times more likely to work part time than fathers. Gender imbalance in parents’ part-time employment is thus even more pronounced than in their parental leave take-up, at least in Sweden. An analysis of 14 in-depth interviews with Swedish fathers who have chosen parental part-time work reveals that part-time work represents for them a way to reconcile their separate identities as professionals and as involved fathers. Nevertheless, this study revealed that certain difficulties of a more structural nature complicated this solution for these men; these issues included, in the first place, a strong full-time norm prevailing in male-dominated workplaces, and traditional ideals of masculinity centred on men's breadwinning role. Furthermore, ideals of gender equality and involved fatherhood also showed themselves as having an impact, enabling new masculine positions for part-time working fathers to emerge.     

Falling Out of Time: The Challenges of Synchrony for Children with Incarcerated Fathers

Using a temporal lens, the article shows how fathers’ incarceration leads to a loss of attunement to the temporal rhythms of their children's everyday lives. This lack of synchrony has implications for both the being and the becoming of the child. Through in‐depth interviews, the article draws on data from a Danish study of mothers and children, aged 5–27, whose father/stepfather was incarcerated. Findings show the significance of a multifaceted understanding of time showing the implications of fathers’ imprisonment for children, suggesting that policy initiatives would be enriched by a focus on challenges to synchrony from the child's perspective.     

Who Helps with Homework? Parenting Inequality and Relationship Quality Among Employed Mothers and Fathers

This study investigated the relationship between parenting inequalities and feelings of relationship quality, and whether those patterns differed for women and men. Using data from the nationally representative 2011 Canadian Work, Stress, and Health Survey (N?=?1427), we documented the relevance of perceived unfairness of the division of parenting and the ways that employment status and work hour preferences (“mismatch”) modify those relationships. We found that mothers in dual-earner households experience greater parenting inequalities than do similarly-situated fathers, net of housework inequalities. The negative association between parenting inequality and relationship quality was stronger among mothers—but that was due to perceived unfairness in the division of parenting tasks. We also observed that the detrimental effect of parenting inequality was stronger for mothers who worked part-time—but that was because of work hours mismatch: they tended to prefer to work longer hours. Our results contribute to the gendered nature of the division of parenting labor and its intersection with work hours and preferences.     

My child is not my carer: mothers with physical disabilities and the well-being of children

This article describes a qualitative study on the experiences of mothers with physical disabilities. Two focus groups were held for mothers with young children and mothers of older children. Eight mothers also participated in in-depth interviews. All have a physical impairment, most are wheelchair users. This article focuses on (a) participants' attempts to ensure the physical and psychological well-being of their children; (b) their child-rearing philosophies and practices; and (c) the overall nature of the parent-child relationship. A range of parenting practices, experiences and relationships was reported. The variability of experiences notwithstanding, participants' life stories demonstrate a strong commitment to children, actions to ensure their care and well-being, and attempts to shield them from any burden related to the maternal disability. Whilst challenges and barriers were candidly reported, by and large, they do not overshadow the joy and fulfilment that these women derive from motherhood.     

‘Who should do the caring’? Involved fatherhood and ambivalent gendered moral rationalities among cohabiting/married irish parents

Drawing on qualitative couple interviews with cohabiting/married mothers and fathers, this paper examines accounts of involved fatherhood in contemporary Ireland. It shows that while the ideal of fathers as heavily involved in day-to-day parenting is widespread, the reality is somewhat different – and this despite increased participation of Irish mothers in the labour market. Given this mismatch between fatherhood ideals and realities, it begs the question: how do we account for this inequitable division of family work? Gender-differentiated parenting experiences, I argue, are strongly influenced by ambivalent attitudes on the part of both fathers and mothers. I argue that mothers draw on ‘primarily mother’ moral rationalities that associates ‘good’ mothering with large amounts of time in direct provision of childcare, while fathers display a ‘primarily worker’ rationality associated with strong commitment to the labour market. It is the clash of these contrasting normative societal demands that gives rise to a pervasive sense of ambivalence about ‘who should do the caring’. This ambivalence, I demonstrate, is especially prominent in single-income families where the father is the sole breadwinner. In dual-income families, several parents go some distance towards reconciling these contradictory claims, these competing moral discourses.