Rust in the Wheatbelt: The Social Impacts of Industrial Decline in a Rural Kansas Community

While most sociologists now recognize the importance of urban industrial problems, there is less awareness of the causes and social significance of nonmetropolitan manufacturing decline. By means of structured and informal interviews, nonparticipant observations, and analysis of public documents, a case study was conducted to evaluate the economic and social "community impacts" of industrial restructuring in a nonurban community. Eight negative consequences of manufacturing decline were identified. The study generated information inconsistent with two prevailing explanations for recent rural industrial troubles in the United States: the underskilled production labor theory, and the deficient physical infrastructure thesis. Case evidence suggested that capital flight, economic and political network powerlessness, and managerial competency deficits may be significant causes of rural manufacturing decline. Given the significance of manufacturing for rural areas, more cogent, multidisciplinary explanations for nonurban industrial shifts need to be developed.     

Social Capital in Rural and Urban Communities1

Abstract Conventional wisdom says that social capital is more common among families in rural communities than urban communities. Using data from the 1988 wave of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, we compare the prevalence, type, and extent of social exchanges in these places. Results indicate that families living in rural areas are more likely to exchange exclusively with kin than are families living in urban areas. In particular, families living in rural areas are more likely to receive money help from kin than families in urban areas. Results on patterns of giving are more complex, with rural origin families with younger household heads more likely to give support to kin, and rural origin families with older heads less likely to provide such support, as compared to otherwise similar families of urban origin. Finally, only modest urban-rural differences in amounts exchanged (in dollars) are found among otherwise similar families. Overall, some of the urban-rural differences in patterns of exchange are explained by different family characteristics; however, key urban-rural differences remain, probably reflecting differences in norms and the availability of institutional support services in different areas.     

Intimate Partner Violence in Small Towns,Dispersed Rural Areas,and Other Locations: Estimates Using a Reconception of Settlement Type

Current understanding of victimization of those in rural settlements compared to other types of settlements is limited by inadequate classifications of settlement types. The typical approach—one based on the incorrect use of the U.S. Office of Management and Budget’s classification of metropolitan areas—may mask important variations in the incidence of violent victimization, and in part explain mixed results related to this issue. To investigate this, we detail problems with following the typical approach, and then describe an alternative measure of settlement type. We next use this alternative settlement type measure to estimate the incidence of intimate partner violence (IPV) against women from 1992–2015 National Crime Victimization Survey data. Over the period examined, the incidence of IPV was highest for women living in small towns (11.4 per 1,000). In contrast, women living in dispersed rural settlements (7.9 per 1,000) shared rates with those in suburbs (7.9 per 1,000) and exurbs (7.1 per 1,000) while reporting rates lower than those of women residing in the urban core (9.7 per 1,000). These results provide clarity to earlier research on the incidence of IPV across settlement types and they call into question the salience of geographic isolation as a determinant of IPV in nonmetropolitan locales.     

Maternal support and adolescent self‐esteem

The relationship between perceived level of maternal support and adolescent well‐being as measured by level of self‐esteem was examined in a sample of 103 black child participants living in urban formal housing and urban informal housing. The study findings support previous research demonstrating a relationship between maternal support and adolescent psychological well‐being. The findings also point to the benefits of an authoritative style of maternal support that is context‐specific. Authoritative or strict maternal parenting in this study, operationalized in terms of an achievement‐oriented maternal support, was significantly related to mental well‐being of children living in informal settlements. Affiliative related maternal support and lack of social isolation were related to increased adolescent well‐being in urban formal housing. Gender differences in perceived maternal support were also evident in the sample. Mother's presence at home was also related to increased psychological well‐being as measured by self‐esteem.     

Urban Residents' Views of Rurality and Contacts with Rural Places1

Little is known about how rural people and places are viewed by the urban majority or the extent to which these images are related to first-hand contact with rurality. Data from a recent mail survey of a sample of people living in Pennsylvania cities suggest that urban people view rural places in positive terms and feel that rural areas and rural lifestyles should be preserved. When asked to consider the desirability of various development strategies, most urban residents indicated that priority should be given to promoting traditional extractive economic activities (farming, forestry, mining); there was little support for other types of business or industrial development Urban residents who visited rural locales for recreation and/or environmental contact were most likely to want to preserve those areas; visiting for social reasons was related to support for development activities. Policy implications of these findings are suggested.     

Urban development and employment in Abidjan

The city of Abidjan in the Ivory Coast has grown physically, economically, and demographically at rates exceeding all reasonable expectation. Yet, as in many other development nations, the employment generated by Abidjan's rapid economic expansion has failed to keep pace with the increase in working population it has attracted. Consequently, economic success has been accompanied by a variety of social strains. Some of these have been discussed in earlier issues of the "International Labour Review" by Louis Roussel. This discussion expands on Roussel's earlier treatment by focusing more specifically on several facets of the urban employment problem created by the rapid growth of Abidjan. Attention is directed to labor supply and employment, factors affecting migration, foreign Africans in the Ivory Coast labor force; the urban informal sector; urban infrastructure and development; social problems of population pressure; employment policy options (current government policies and other policy options); and general issues and policy alternatives (motivations for rural urban migration, smaller urban centers as alternative growth poles, and distributing the gains from development). Several essential features of the employment problem stem from the rural urban distribution of the workforce. The rural labor force, including temporary seasonal workers from the savannah countries to the north, remains more or less in balance with increasing rural employment opportunities, since the migration of Ivory Coast nationals to the cities is balanced by the inflow of foreign workers. In contrast, the influx of migrants into urban areas has led to a more rapid increase in the urban labor force than in urban employment, with a consequent rise in unemployment. In 1970 the Abidjan rate of open unemployment was probably around 20%. At this time, most people's idea of a desirable job is one in the formal sector of the urban economy. If there is to be any hope of an eventual balance between expectations and reality, it must be realized that an increasing share of the urban labor force will have to end up in the informal sector. Different attitudes towards work in the informal sector are needed on the part of both young people entering the labor force and of government policy makers. The latter should be seeking ways to increase productivity and incomes in the informal sector rather than for ways to destroy it. Current government policies include the training and educating of nationals to replace foreign technicians and managers, increasing the attractiveness of the rural milieu by the promotion of cooperatives, attempts to reform the land tenure system, the supply of electricity to villages, and the introduction of educational television; and adapting the educational system and technical training programs to the needs of the economy.     

Friendships in late life: A rural-urban comparison

This study examines the friendship patterns of older adults living in rural and urban areas. The sample consisted of 132 urban adults and 126 rural adults, 65 years of age and older. Respondents were randomly selected and interviewed in their own homes. While both groups were involved in joint social activities and helping behaviors with their friends, there was a distinction in the type of involvement according to geographical location.Karen Roberto is Assistant Professor and Coordinator of the Gerontology Program at the University of Northern Colorado. Her current research interests include women's health issues in aging and older people's involvement with informal support networks. Dr. Roberto holds a Ph.D. in Human Development from Texas Tech University.Jean Pearson Scott is Associate Professor in the Department of Human Development and Family Studies at Texas Tech University. Dr. Scott earned her Ph.D. from the University of North Carolina at Greensboro and is currently conducting research on Alzheimers Disease in the family and the rural elderly.This is a revised version of a paper presented at the Families and Close Relationships: Individuals in Social Interaction Conference, Lubbock, TX, February, 1982.This study was supported by a grant from AARP Andrus Foundation and the Institute for University Research, College of Home Economics, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409.     

武汉市统筹城乡一体化发展研究

统筹城乡一体化发展是当前推动城乡经济社会发展的迫切任务。本文通过建立指标评估,发现武汉城乡一体化水平略高于城镇化水平;城乡人口、经济、生活和文化一体化进程中,城乡经济发展的差别最为明显,融合程度最低,而城乡居民生活方面则融合程度较高,人口与文化融合度持平。而城乡二元户籍制度、土地的合理开发利用及农民权益保障、农村公共服务投入不足、农村社会保障体系不完善是当前制约城乡一体化发展的重要瓶颈。文章从法律制度层面、财政层面及组织体制层面分析了破解城乡一体化发展瓶颈的重要举措。     

Augmented informality: South Africa's backyard dwellings as a by-product of formal housing policies

Insufficient and inadequate housing for the urban poor has a long history in South Africa, as in other African cities. Nearly one-fifth of urban households in South Africa reside in an informal dwelling. While most live in informal settlements, significant proportions have erected informal structures (essentially ‘shacks’) in the backyard of another property, a distinctly South African phenomenon. Backyard dwellings have historically been overlooked by housing policies that focus on upgrading and/or eradicating informal settlements. Previously, backyard dwellers were perceived as marginalised, living in appalling conditions and exploited by cavalier landlords. However, the post-apartheid provision of state-funded housing for the poor has altered the nature of backyard housing, creating a new class of cash-poor homeowners who are dependent on income from backyard dwellers' rent, thus ensuring a more equitable power pendulum between landlord and tenant. This paper uses research conducted in a low-income state-subsidised housing settlement in Cape Town to explore the new dimensions of informal backyard housing, both for landlords and tenants, as a consequence of South Africa's formal housing policies.     

Informal waste harvesting in Victoria Falls town, Zimbabwe: Socio-economic benefits

Waste harvesting, which occurs mostly but not exclusively at open waste dumps in Zimbabwe, constitutes one of the most important survival options for the urban poor. This paper analyses and discusses socio-economic benefits of informal waste harvesters in Victoria Falls town. Victoria Falls town has an estimated population of 31,000 and is presently the fastest growing urban centre in Zimbabwe. An estimated 8000 tonnes of solid wastes are generated in the town every month. Questionnaires were administered to informal waste harvesters who recover materials mostly from three large open waste dumps. Thirteen dumpsite harvesters, who were available at the time of the survey and willing to participate, were interviewed during the month of October 2002. The questionnaire solicited for information on the character and dynamics of recuperative activities in the town, socio-economic and demographic characteristics of waste harvesters, type of materials recovered and their uses, and income derived from sale of harvested materials and how it is spent. Additional data were obtained from field observations.The study identified two categories of waste harvesters. The first group specialises in the recovery of foodstuffs mainly for household use. The second group comprises informal waste harvesters who specialise in the recovery of building materials such as bricks and river sand and scrap metal primarily for sale. Data provided by dumpsite waste harvesters interviewed show that the mean monthly income from the sale of harvested materials varied from Z$7500 (for 23.1% of the respondents) to Z$22,500.5 (for 15.3% of the respondents). Using the income they obtain from waste harvesting, most respondents (84.6%) indicated that they can now afford to pay school fees for their children in time while 61.5% stated that after engaging in resource recovery, they moved from informal settlements to Chinotimba where they now stay to a more decent accommodation with electricity, piped water and flush toilets. Prior to engaging in waste recovery, over a half of the informal waste harvesters indicated that were staying in informal settlements. The findings of this study, in particular the income and expenditure data, demonstrate that by engaging in waste harvesting, some of the urban poor are able to eke out living in an urban environment where economic opportunities are very limited. However, the contribution of informal waste harvesting to urban livelihoods in urban areas of Zimbabwe needs further investigation.     

Challenges of Using Secondary Data to Study Rural Caregiving within the United States

When health fails, rural residents often turn to informal caregivers for assistance and are more likely to do so than those living in urban areas. Scholarship is clear in demonstrating the many burdens that accrue to those providing informal care. Furthermore, caregivers in rural areas face amplified health disparities and stressors, and limited access to resources and formalized supports. Yet, the study of informal caregiving within geographic context is made difficult by the limitations inherent in existing secondary data sources. In this report, we discuss three available data sources that provide information about US caregivers: the National Family Alliance Caregiving in the US Survey; Health and Retirement Survey; and National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States. These datasets illustrate common challenges of studying rural caregiving, including how to define rural residence, issues with data access, and difficulties attaining an adequate sample size. After reviewing these methodological issues, we identify two additional data sources that while promising, suffer from challenges of their own. We conclude by offering suggestions about how to capture the unique experiences of rural caregivers beyond the use of secondary data.     

SEXUAL PRIVACY AND EARLY SEXUAL DEBUT IN NAIROBI INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS1

The purpose of this paper is to examine sexual privacy as a factor that may influence the relatively earlier sexual debut among the urban poor in Nairobi. 40 focus group discussions were held with people aged 13–17, 18–24, 25–49 and 50+ years, community leaders and service providers in four informal settlements of Nairobi. Lack of sexual privacy was identified as a major problem. Although adults were reported to use various means to acquire some measure of privacy, such as waiting for children to fall asleep, switching off the lights and separating the sleeping areas using curtains, these measures were found inadequate. The participants therefore associated young people's early initiation of sexual activity with lack of sexual privacy. Sexual privacy has not received adequate research attention as a dimension of poverty that influences young people's sexuality. More studies are called for to unravel the specific association between sexual privacy among adults and young people's sexual behaviour. The living conditions of the urban poor should also be addressed to mitigate the effects of lack of sexual privacy.     

Out in the country: rural sexual minority mothers

Rural and urban sexual minority mothers' parenting experiences related to sexual orientation were compared. Participants were 414 mothers in same-sex relationships with at least one child under the age of 18 years living in their home who was planned with their current partner. Rural mothers were more likely to be biological parents and not adoptive parents. Rural mothers reported higher rates of discrimination from strangers and people in service or helping professions. Although outness for rural and urban mothers did not differ, for children, classmates' parents and neighbors were less likely to know the family's status in rural areas. Rural and urban mothers did not differ on internalized homophobia, social support, or stigma consciousness. Clinical and policy implications are discussed.     

Access to Water in the Slums of Sub‐Saharan Africa

This article reviews the changing perspectives for improving access to water in the slums of developing countries, especially in sub‐Saharan Africa. While much of the literature continues to maintain an aversion to state‐led urban development policies, there is now increasing emphasis on the importance of informal, small‐scale providers and communitarian initiatives, following the many failures of privatisation. The article argues that market‐oriented solutions are inappropriate for sub‐Saharan African countries where over two‐thirds of the urban population live in squatter settlements with multidimensional challenges.     

Migration,urbanization, and fertility in the Philippines

3 groups of women are compared in this study of the effect of migration on fertility in a less developed country: 1) rural sedentary; 2) rural to rural migrants; and 3) rural to urban migrants. The data are from a 1970 household interview study conducted by the Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado in Magsayay and Matanao, Davao Province, Mindanao, the Philippines. Social, economic, and mortality data were gathered from the household head and/or spouse for each household member and each child living elsewhere. Reproductive histories were obtained only from women for all women 15 years of age and older living in the 2 rural communities and living elsewhere. Age specific fertility rates and child woman ratios showed a declining gradient of fertility with social distance from the rural home communities. Age at marriage and education were positively associated with distance from the home communities and negatively associated with fertility. The data provide support for the hypothesis that recent migration is innovative, engaged in by more modernized persons who are motivated by aspiration to new goals, thus migration has a negative effect on fertility. Urbanization had its major impact after peak fertility years, 20-29, influencing urban migrants to bring their fertility under voluntary control. No such curtailment appeared in the late reproductive behavior of rural sedentary or migrant women. Urbanization seems to have a negative effect on fertility independent of migration. Young migrant women, in their teens, particularly those migrating to urban areas, did not fit the social mobility model; they tended to complete fewer years of school and married at an earlier age. These young urban migrants also had higher fertility than both rural sedentary and rural migrant females while in their teen years.     

Does It Cost Less to Live in Rural Areas? Evidence from New Data on Food Security and Hunger*

Abstract Rural‐urban differences in the association of food insecurity and hunger with income suggest that the cost of living is substantially lower in rural than in urban areas. This implies that the official poverty rate overstates rural economic hardship compared with that in urban areas. Geographic differences in cost of living implied by the association between food insecurity and income provide some validation of the cost of housing adjustment proposed by the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) panel on improving the measurement of poverty, but suggest that the NAS adjustment generally overcorrects for cost of living and would be seriously problematic in some regions.     

Sustainable housing applications and policies for low-income self-build and housing rehab

Recent years have seen an increased focus on the role of house construction and retrofitting within the broader agenda of sustainable development and climate change. To date this focus has largely targeted middle- and upper-income residential neighborhoods in urban areas. However, in the United States, and in middle developing countries such as Brazil and Mexico, there is growing recognition that urban sustainability will only gain traction if widespread applications are also incorporated into self-help and do-it-yourself housing construction and home improvements, especially those that address lower-income housing markets. Here we explore some of the potential ways in which contemporary sustainable housing applications may be integrated into the existing housing stock in low-income and informal settlements in the United States and in Latin America. We document the range of sustainable housing applications that are increasingly available in the U.S. as a baseline for discussion and evaluation of the potential application to lower-income segments of the housing market in both developed and developing countries. A heuristic model is presented to assess the extent to which policy makers, NGOs and low-income owner households may realistically participate in sustainable home building. Beyond physical development applications we close by emphasizing that sustainable housing agendas must adopt a holistic approach: one that embraces community and social organizational development, as well as fiscal and juridical policy dimensions.     

Integrating Services for Older People in Aging Communities in The Netherlands: A Comparison of Urban and Rural Approaches

ABSTRACT

The aim of this article is to discuss approaches to services integration for older people in urban and rural aging environments in The Netherlands, and the preliminary effects of these approaches on local aging conditions. In urban areas, services integration revolves around the creation of functional spatial hierarchy. In rural areas, the emphasis is on forging links between service providers. Outcomes for health and use of professional care services are similar. Out-comes for housing, informal care, and accessibility of services differ between urban and rural areas in ways that can be traced back to local aging conditions and elements of the specific approach to services integration used. In both urban and rural areas, much more could be done to connect formal programs to the lifeworlds of older dwellers.     

Conceptualisations of fatherhood and socio-contextual dynamics influencing father involvement in informal settlements in Durban,South Africa

Many men living in informal settlements are unemployed and many do not live with their children. Nevertheless, these men can play a critical role in their children’s lives. In this paper, we explore the extent to which fathers in informal settlements manage or aspire to do this. We explore how they appreciate the social and familial role of “the father” and how they seek to translate these ideas into actions. Findings are based on three FGDs and 19 IDIs with young men in two informal settlements in South Africa. In this setting, father involvement is predicated on financial provision, yet lack of economic opportunities for men condemns them to the undesirable status of “failed fathers.” Men’s involvement in childcare is contested with some men supporting father involvement that goes beyond financial provision. Notions of traditional masculinity, praise and recognition by community, and the view that looking after your own child is tantamount to looking after your own future, are factors that enhance father involvement. Unemployment or precarious work, alcohol abuse, gender ideologies, and maternal and cultural gatekeeping are socio-contextual dynamics that undermine father involvement. For interventions to be effective in promoting father involvement, they should address critical context-specific issues.     

城乡一体化过程中上海农村社会事业发展对策研究

城乡一体化是经济社会发展的一般规律,是传统农业社会向现代工业社会演变的必然过程,也是现代化的组成部分。城乡一体化的核心是城乡居民的地位一体化、机会一体化、保障一体化。必须从制度上建立一套保障城乡一体化的系统,其中,推进农村社会事业发展更是至关重要。农村教育、卫生、文化、体育、社会保障、社会服务等社会事业的发展水平,某种程度上可以用来衡量一个国家或地区经济社会的发展水平。因此,加强上海农村社会事业发展不仅与广大农民群众的切身利益和农村、农业的发展需要密切相关,而且对于破除城乡二元结构、加快城乡一体化进程、建设现代化国际大都市,实现＂四个率先＂,以及对于探索转型期农村公共产品供给制度的创新、建立与完善农村公共产品和服务供给模式等,具有重要的战略意义、理论意义和应用价值。