Online gambling participation and problem gambling severity: is there a causal relationship?

Studies of Internet gambling have consistently shown that online gamblers are more likely to report disordered gambling behaviour than offline gamblers. However, little research has focused on whether this is a causal relationship or whether this risk factor is capturing a relationship with one or more missing variables. To address whether there is a strong causal argument for the effect of online gambling participation on problem gambling severity, we use a secondary data method that corrects for potential omitted variable bias. Once this issue is addressed, we find that past-year participation in online gambling is related to a decrease in problem gambling severity, which is the opposite of the popular view in current literature. The estimates in this study are found to be robust to various forms of online gambling, control variables and problem gambling measurement instruments. The findings were also consistent when using a representative sample from the United Kingdom and when using an online research panel from Ontario, Canada. As a primary force against the widespread adoption of Internet gambling has been public health concern over problem gambling, this study provides evidence that such decisions should be more closely considered by policymakers.     

Reduced inhibitory control predicts persistence in laboratory slot machine gambling

Impairments in inhibitory control characterize a range of addictive behaviours including gambling disorder. This study investigated the relationship between a neuropsychological measure of inhibitory control and behaviour on a simulated slot machine that included a measure of gambling persistence, in a non-clinical sample of regular gamblers. Regular gamblers (n = 75) performed a laboratory slot machine task for 30 trials where they could win real money, followed by a persistence phase under extinction (i.e. without wins). Participants also completed a stop-signal task, along with measures of gambling-related cognitions, social desirability, and symptoms of disordered gambling. In hierarchical regression models, reduced inhibitory control was found to predict greater persistence and a higher subjective desire to play again after both wins and near-misses (i.e. unsuccessful outcomes close to the jackpot). These data illustrate the impact of low inhibitory control on relevant behavioural tendencies in a group of regular gamblers. Our results help elucidate a cognitive process that may contribute to problem gambling, with implications for screening and treatment.     

Predicting gambling behaviour and problems from implicit and explicit positive gambling outcome expectancies in regular gamblers

Outcome expectancies are the positive or negative effects that individuals anticipate may occur from engaging in a given behaviour. Although explicit outcome expectancies have been found to play an important role in gambling, research has yet to assess the role of implicit outcome expectancies in gambling. In two studies, we investigated whether implicit and explicit positive gambling outcome expectancies were independent predictors of gambling behaviour (i.e. amount of time spent and money risked gambling; Study 1) and problem gambling severity (Study 2). In both studies, implicit positive gambling outcome expectancies were assessed by having regular gamblers (N = 58 in Study 1; N = 96 in Study 2) complete a gambling outcome expectancy reaction time (RT) task. A self-report measure of positive gambling outcome expectancies was used to assess participants' explicit positive gambling outcome expectancies. Both the RT task and self-report measure of positive gambling outcome expectancies significantly contributed unique as well as shared variance in the prediction of self-reported gambling behaviour (Study 1) and problem gambling severity (Study 2). Findings from the current research point to the importance of using both direct and indirect assessment modes when examining the role of outcome expectancies in gambling.     

Gambling attitudes and beliefs associated with problem gambling: the cohort effect of Baby Boomers

Recreational and problem gamblers alike hold beliefs about gambling that are dysfunctional. These dysfunctional beliefs have been theorized to play a role in problem gambling behaviour. The current study sought to examine the effects of gambling attitudes and beliefs on problem gambling behaviour across three cohorts. A sample of 308 participants consisted of 101 individuals from Generation X, 139 from the Baby Boom cohort and 68 from the Silent Generation. Hierarchical multiple regressions showed that for Baby Boomers, higher scores on scales measuring beliefs about luck and illusions of control were associated with higher scores on measures of problem gambling than for the Silent Generation. Generation X’s higher scores on luck scales were associated with higher scores in problem gambling than the Baby Boom cohort. Attitudes associated with problem gambling did not differ among cohorts. These results suggest that while cohorts may not differ in types or levels of distorted beliefs, they differ in how such distortions relate to problem gambling. Future research should focus on determining whether such cohort effects are indicative of differences within the development and maintenance of problem gambling itself.     

Description and pre-post evaluation of a telephone and Internet based treatment programme for pathological gambling in Norway: a pilot study

Although the effectiveness of treatments for pathological gamblers is gaining support, only 10% of pathological gamblers seek treatment. Providing treatment via the Internet may lower the thresholds for treatment seeking. A new telephone and Internet based treatment programme for pathological gamblers is presented in this article, along with a pre-post evaluation of the programme. The participants (N = 112) were problem gamblers who were either self-referred or referred by their general practitioner. Data from post-treatment and 3-month follow-up are evaluated. The results suggest that using Internet and telephone-assisted treatment interventions can significantly reduce symptoms of pathological gambling (measured by the South Oaks Gambling Screen – Revised). The intervention was also associated with improvement on cognitive distortions, measured by the Gamblers Belief Questionnaire, and general psychological distress and psychopathology as measured by the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised. Although Internet-based treatment programmes have been suggested to have advantages compared to traditional face-to-face therapy, research in this area is scarce. This pilot study contributes to the growing literature in this area, and provides tentative support for the effectiveness of Internet based treatment interventions for pathological gamblers.     

Does gambling type moderate the links between problem gambling,emotion regulation,anxiety, depression and gambling motives

The aim of this study is to assess the link between emotion regulation, depression, anxiety and gambling motives among a population of regular gamblers, distinguishing between strategic and chance game players. We recruited 287 regular gamblers online, including both problem (PG) and non-problem gamblers (NPG). All participants completed online questionnaires to screen for problem gambling (SOGS) and to assess emotion regulation (ERQ), anxiety and depression (HADS) and gambling motives (GMQ-F). In this sample, 33.4% of participants were PG. PG scored significantly higher than NPG on the GMQ-F (except for the social subscale) and HADS, but not in ERQ. Gamblers who played both strategic and chance games displayed more frequent and severe gambling problems and had higher depression and anxiety scores than those playing only strategic games. Overall, enhancement and financial motives and depression significantly predicted PG. Finally, the study found that gambling type moderates the relationship between problem gambling and expressive suppression, depression and gambling motives. The results show the intricate relationship between gambling motives and psychiatric symptoms (in particular, depression) in PG. Mixed and strategic gamblers share common motives, but coping, financial and enhancement were stronger among PG. Finally, they emphasize the differences between different types of gamblers.     

Gambling Motives: Do They Explain Cognitive Distortions in Male Poker Gamblers?

Gambling behavior is partly the result of varied motivations leading individuals to participate in gambling activities. Specific motivational profiles are found in gamblers, and gambling motives are closely linked to the development of cognitive distortions. This cross-sectional study aimed to predict cognitive distortions from gambling motives in poker players. The population was recruited in online gambling forums. Participants reported gambling at least once a week. Data included sociodemographic characteristics, the South Oaks Gambling Screen, the Gambling Motives Questionnaire-Financial and the Gambling-Related Cognition Scale. This study was conducted on 259 male poker gamblers (aged 18–69 years, 14.3% probable pathological gamblers). Univariate analyses showed that cognitive distortions were independently predicted by overall gambling motives (34.8%) and problem gambling (22.4%) (p < .05). The multivariate model, including these two variables, explained 39.7% of cognitive distortions (p < .05). The results associated with the literature data highlight that cognitive distortions are a good discriminating factor of gambling problems, showing a close inter-relationship between gambling motives, cognitive distortions and the severity of gambling. These data are consistent with the following theoretical process model: gambling motives lead individuals to practice and repeat the gambling experience, which may lead them to develop cognitive distortions, which in turn favor problem gambling. This study opens up new research perspectives to understand better the mechanisms underlying gambling practice and has clinical implications in terms of prevention and treatment. For example, a coupled motivational and cognitive intervention focused on gambling motives/cognitive distortions could be beneficial for individuals with gambling problems.     

Assessing the differential impacts of online,mixed, and offline gambling

The emergence of new behaviours associated with communication technologies has prompted questions about the evolution of gambling in the population. The development of online gambling gave rise to public health concerns back 20 years ago. Current knowledge indicates that online gamblers generally tend to show more psychosocial problems than offline gamblers. But those portraits tend to neglect the differences between pure and mixed online gamblers. The goal of this research is to assess if, and to what extent, online gambling generates more harmful impacts on the health and well-being in a sample of adult gamblers in Québec. The propensity score matching method was chosen to assess the variable prevalence of impacts on a sample of 810 regular gamblers recruited from an online panel. They were divided into sub-groups: pure online gamblers (n = 143), mixed online gamblers (n = 125), and a control group of offline gamblers (n = 542). The study has revealed that among online gamblers and their entourage, online gambling does, in fact, result in an extra burden of impacts in several aspects of their lives: work, relationships, mental/physical health, finances, quality of life, and problem gambling according to the Canadian Problem Gambling Index. Results also show that combined with offline gambling, online gambling significantly increases the burden of impacts in terms of both the number and intensity of impacts. This is the first empirical study using propensity score matching to asses the incremental impacts of online gambling by separating pure and mixed gamblers and to compare them to offline gamblers.     

Cognitive distortions predict future gambling involvement

Disordered gambling is best conceptualized as a continuum of severity. Previous research has demonstrated the utility of studying individuals at all points of this spectrum. The sequence of the development of gambling problems and change in gambling involvement along this continuum of severity is not well understood. The present study examined the interplay between cognitive distortions and gambling involvement in a population sample recruited in Alberta, Canada. Data from 1372 participants over 4 assessment waves (5 years) were used to generate a 2-factor latent structure using gambling fallacies and gambling involvement measurements. Structural equation modelling showed that cognitive distortions more strongly predicted future gambling involvement than the reverse relationship, using the comparative fit index (CFI) and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) to assess the models. In addition, cognitive distortions declined over time, whereas gambling involvement remained stable. The results of the study suggest that focusing primarily on cognitive mechanisms in public health initiatives for gambling disorders may be a more effective strategy than focusing on behavioural solutions.     

Psychological Vulnerability and Problem Gambling: The Mediational Role of Cognitive Distortions

Despite numerous studies demonstrating the influence of cognitive distortions on gambling problem severity, empirical data regarding the role of psychological vulnerability on the latter is limited. Hence, this study assesses the mediating effect of cognitive distortions between psychological vulnerability (personality and mood), and gambling problem severity. It also verifies whether the relationships between these variables differs according to the preferred gambling activity. The sample is composed of 272 male gamblers [191 poker players; 81 video lottery terminal (VLT) players] aged between 18 and 82 years (M = 35.2). Bootstrap analysis results revealed that cognitive distortions mediate the effect of narcissism on gambling problem severity for both groups. The level of depression for VLT players significantly predicted gambling problem severity, both directly and indirectly via the mediating effect of cognitive distortions. Mediation analyses also indicated that narcissism had an indirect impact on problem gambling through cognitive distortions for both groups. These findings suggest that certain vulnerabilities related to personality and mood may influence cognitive distortion intensity and gambling problem severity. In addition, psychological vulnerabilities could differ based on preferred gambling activity. These results may be useful for prevention policies, identifying high risk gamblers and planning psychological interventions.     

Differences in Cognitive Distortions Between Pathological and Non-Pathological Gamblers with Preferences for Chance or Skill Games

Cognitive distortions have been thought to play an important role in the development and maintenance of pathological gambling. The present study investigated whether severity of gambling problems and gamblers’ preference for chance or skill games were related to two sub-factors of cognitive distortions as measured by the Gamblers Belief Questionnaire: Luck/Perseverance, which reflects an individual’s perception that chance is favorable to him/her, and Illusion of Control, which reflects an individual’s perception that his/her behavior influences chance occurrences. Participants (N = 166) were recruited from a race track (n = 79), off-course betting facilities (n = 50) and from an online treatment program for problem gamblers (n = 49). Gambling severity was measured by the South Oaks Gambling Screen, and 73 were classified as pathological gamblers whereas 93 were classified as non-pathological gamblers. The present study supports previous proposals that cognitive distortions are core processes related to gambling behavior as pathological gamblers reported more cognitive distortions than did non-pathological gamblers. A preference for skill games was also associated with greater Illusion of Control compared to a preference for chance games. For gamblers preferring skill games there were no differences in Luck/Perseverance or Illusion of Control between pathological and non-pathological gamblers.     

The temporal relationship between gambling related beliefs and gambling behaviour: a prospective study using the theory of planned behaviour

The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) has been successfully employed to investigate the role of gambling-related beliefs in the maintenance of gambling behaviour. However, there is a lack of research that examines the temporal relationships between the TPB predictor variables and gambling behaviour. Thus, the current study examines the utility of expectancies, normative beliefs, perceived behaviour control and gambling intentions in predicting gambling frequency, as assessed 12 months later. In addition, these gambling-related beliefs were reassessed at the 12-month follow-up survey to examine their stability and relationships with gambling behaviour. A total of 805 Australian adults, recruited via an online research panel, completed the baseline and follow-up online survey. Consistent with expectations, gambling-related beliefs explained gambling intentions and intentions predicted Wave 2 gambling frequency, after controlling Wave 1 gambling frequency. In relation to the stability of gambling-related beliefs, the Wave 2 measures explained additional variance in the Wave 2 gambling behaviour, although the type of beliefs associated with Wave 2 gambling frequency and problem gambling severity differed. These findings provide support for the notion that the perceived benefits of gambling and beliefs in skill are important areas to target in preventative and problem gambling initiatives.     

Superstitious Beliefs in Gambling Among Problem and Non-Problem Gamblers: Preliminary Data

Superstitious beliefs, defined as a strong conviction based on the erroneous perception of a cause-effect association between two independent events, are considered to play an instrumental role in the maintenance of gambling behaviour. In this preliminary study, responses to eight items assessing superstitious beliefs were compared among 56 electronic gaming machine (EGM) problem gamblers, 22 non-problem EGM and 23 non-EGM non-problem gamblers. Results suggested that problem gamblers endorsed more superstitious beliefs than non-problem gamblers and that such beliefs were correlated with gambling intensity. Further research is required to determine if superstitious beliefs represent a vulnerability factor for the development of problem gambling or emerge as a consequence of involvement in gambling.     

Economic mobility moderates the effect of relative deprivation on financial gambling motives and disordered gambling

This study examined whether a positive association between personal relative deprivation and disordered gambling severity is mediated by the motivation to gamble for financial gain. We hypothesized that this would occur specifically among people who perceived a low personal capacity for upward economic mobility via conventional means of advancement. A sample of community gamblers (N = 196) completed measures of personal relative deprivation, perceptions about upward economic mobility, gambling motivations (financial, coping, enhancement and social) and disordered gambling severity. The predicted moderated mediation model was observed – among people who perceived a low capacity for upward economic mobility, relative deprivation predicted disordered gambling severity via the motivation to gamble for financial gain. This indirect effect did not hold among people who perceived a high capacity for upward mobility. These findings suggest the importance of addressing beliefs about upward economic mobility in gambling prevention and intervention strategies. Among gamblers who feel relatively deprived, it may be advantageous to highlight feasible avenues for upward economic mobility that do not involve gambling.     

Predictors of help-seeking for gambling disorder from the transtheoretical model perspective

Few gamblers seek treatment despite the severe negative impacts prolonged gambling can have. Research surrounding the predictors of help-seeking for problem gambling is often retrospective in design and inconsistent in findings. This study prospectively investigated whether transtheoretical model (TTM) constructs (readiness to change, ratings of temptations and self-efficacy, decisional balance and processes of change) have utility in predicting help-seeking among disordered gamblers. Community-recruited disordered gamblers (N = 136; 47.06% female; mean age = 44.5 years, SD = 12.8; 80.1% Caucasian) completed three assessments of TTM constructs, help-seeking behaviour, gambling problem severity, and other potential predictors of help-seeking. Informal help-seeking was common (6-month = 71.1%; 12-month = 79.6%); however, formal help-seeking was relatively infrequent (6-month = 22.7%; 12-month = 35.1%). Logistic regression demonstrated that gambling problem severity and the social liberation process of change (i.e. endorsing public awareness of gambling problems or non-gambling role models) consistently predicted formal help-seeking. Helping relationships and counter-conditioning (i.e. engaging in other activities as a replacement for gambling) processes of change uniquely predicted informal help-seeking at 12 months. Individuals most likely to seek formal help have greater problem severity and greater readiness to address problems. Seeking informal help is less predictable but more common.     

Co-morbidity of gambling and Internet use among Internet and land-based gamblers: classic and network approaches

This study investigated co-morbidity of problem gambling and problematic Internet use (PIU) among adolescent Internet and land-based gamblers, with the classic approach using sum-scores of symptoms and a promising new method, namely the network perspective. This perspective allows testing for how multiple disorders are associated, showing symptoms overlap and centralities. We used cross-sectional data from two population-based samples of adolescents aged 17 years in France (n = 2,240) and Switzerland (n = 944). Measures included Internet gambling, problem gambling and PIU. The classic approach showed that Internet gambling was associated with increased levels of disordered gambling and PIU, but that correlations between disorders were weak (R² min = 3.2%, R² max = 17.6%). The network perspective showed that the co-morbid network of Internet gamblers was more connected in comparison with land-based gamblers. Problem gambling and PIU appeared as separate disorders, but their relationship was increased among Internet gamblers in comparison with land-based gamblers. The network perspective appeared as a promising avenue for a better understanding of addictive disorders, but it should not replace the classic approach, which showed increased levels of addictive behaviours among Internet gamblers.     

Behaviour change strategies for problem gambling: an analysis of online posts

Reducing or quitting problematic gambling often requires implementing a variety of behaviour change strategies, but there is limited evidence regarding the breadth of specific strategies that gamblers use to control or limit gambling behaviours. This study aimed to identify the range of change strategies reported by gamblers in a naturalistic setting (i.e. two online forums for problem gambling). A total of 2937 change strategies were extracted from online posts (N = 1370). Content analysis identified 27 discrete change strategies that were pre-decisional (i.e. barriers – behavioural and psychological, decisional balance, realization – behaviour and cognitions, set reasons to change, seek knowledge and information, self-assessment), pre-actional (i.e. action planning, commitment, goal setting), actional (i.e. alternative activity, behavioural substitution, avoidance – abstinence, environment and financial, consumption control, maintain readiness, reinforcement, urge management, cognitive restructuring, seek inspiration, self-monitoring and spiritual) and multi-phased (i.e. external support, social support and well-being). This study suggests the breadth and depth of change strategies are far more complex than previously reported. Future research with a broader population needs to determine which change strategies are most effective for those experiencing different levels of gambling problems.     

Problem gambling,familial violence and alcohol misuse: exploring the triad for treatment-seekers

Research into the co-occurrence of problem gambling, familial violence, and alcohol misuse is limited. While these issues have been considered in combination (i.e. violence and alcohol misuse, problem gambling and alcohol misuse, problem gambling and violence), within Australia, in particular, there has been an absence of exploration of this triad. The current research attempts to fill the gap in the literature, to establish whether there is any difference between problem gamblers with co-occurring violence and problem gamblers who had not experienced violence in terms of their alcohol misuse and gambling behaviours. Interviews were conducted with 81 treatment-seeking problem gamblers to explore how a history of victimization only, perpetration only, victimization and perpetration, or no history of family violence impacted on gambling behaviours (including baseline Victorian Gambling Screen), as well as alcohol misuse. Results indicated that in this treatment-seeking sample there were no significant differences for gambling behaviours or alcohol misuse between problem gamblers with issues of violence and those without. Males demonstrated (on average) a greater tendency toward hazardous drinking or disordered alcohol use. It would be prudent for treatment services to routinely examine problem gamblers' history of violence and alcohol misuse until research verifies the nature of this triad.