A New Approach to the Study of Tolerance: Conceptualizing and Measuring Acceptance,Respect, and Appreciation of Difference

Previous empirical research on tolerance suffers from a number of shortcomings, the most serious being the conceptual and operational conflation of (in)tolerance and prejudice. We design research to remedy this. First, we contribute to the literature by advancing research that distinguishes analytically between the two phenomena. We conceptualize tolerance as a value orientation towards difference. This definition—which is abstract and does not capture attitudes towards specific out-groups, ideas, or behaviors—allows for the analysis of tolerance within and between societies. Second, we improve the measurement of tolerance by developing survey items that are consistent with this conceptualization. We administer two surveys, one national (Sweden) and one cross-national (Australia, Denmark, Great Britain, Sweden, and the United States). Results from structural equation models show that tolerance is best understood as a three-dimensional concept, which includes acceptance of, respect for, and appreciation of difference. Analyses show that measures of tolerance have metric invariance across countries, and additional tests demonstrate convergent and discriminant validity. We also assess tolerance’s relationship to prejudice and find that only an appreciation of difference has the potential to reduce prejudice. We conclude that it is not only possible to measure tolerance in a way that is distinct from prejudice but also necessary if we are to understand the causes and consequences of tolerance.

     

The global space of international students in 2010

ABSTRACT

International students have become an increasingly important research object – not only on the basis of the overall expansion and importance of international students in higher education and in national economic policies, but also since they constitute a strategic research object for understanding the global landscape of higher education. By using correspondence analysis on a data set on countries of destination and regions of origin, the global space of international students is depicted. The analysis reveals a structure with three main poles, a Pacific pole, a Central European one and a French/Iberian one. The three poles correspond to three different logics of recruitment: a market logic, a proximity logic and a colonial logic. The three poles and logics are also related to linguistic structures. The Pacific/Market pole is dominated by English, while the Central European pole has German and Slavic languages as a common denominator, and the French and Iberian pole has French, Spanish and Portuguese in common with their former colonies. It is argued that the Pacific/Market pole is the dominating pole in the space due to the high concentration of resources of different sorts, including economic, political, educational, scientific and not least, linguistic assets.     

Neonatal imitation: Temporal characteristics in imitative response patterns

Neonatal imitation has been an area that has attracted intense attention within developmental psychology. Reported here are data from 33 newborn infants (16 girls; mean age: 47 hr) assessed for imitation of tongue protrusion (TP) and mouth opening (MO). The stimuli were presented dynamically, in three 20‐second‐long gesture modeling intervals, interwoven with three 20‐second‐long intervals in which the presenter kept a passive face. Imitation of TP emerged among a majority of the infants during the first 60 s of the experiment. In contrast, MO showed a protracted response and a majority exhibited imitation after 60 s. The individual response pattern of the participating infants varied substantially over the course of the experiment. The study provides renewed support for neonatal imitation of MO and TP, and, in addition, suggests that the temporal organization of the responses observed is an important factor to consider, which in turn has methodological and theoretical implications.     

Effects of experimentally induced mental and physical stress on motor unit recruitment in the trapezius muscle

Mental stress may induce muscle tension and it is thought to contribute to the development of musculoskeletal disorders. Prolonged activity of a muscle's motor units (the smallest functional units) having low activation thresholds, may cause metabolic disturbances, degenerative processes and pain. The present experiment was aimed at investigating if the same motor units are activated by mental stress as by physical demands. Seventeen participants were exposed to mental stress tests (mental arithmetic, Stroop color word) and physical demands (standardized reference contraction, force ramp contraction) in the laboratory. In addition, they were exposed to the cold pressor test. Bipolar intramuscular electromyographic (EMG) activity was measured in the trapezius muscle, which covers the upper part of the back, the neck and the shoulder, and an automatic classification programme was used to separate the contributions of the individual motor units in the compex EMG signal. Overall muscle activity was measured by bipolar surface EMG and heart rate was recorded as an indicator of stress. The mental stress induced significant increases in muscle activity ( p < .05) and in heart rate ( p < .05). In 12 out of 14 participants, one or more motor units were found to be active in mentally as well as in physically induced muscle contraction. The results indicate that mentally induced stress may contribute to keeping low threshold motor units active, even in the absence of physical demands. Considering the health risks of prolonged motor unit activity, it was concluded that lack of mental rest is an important risk factor for the development of muscular pain.     

Depression and exercise in elderly men and women: findings from the Swedish national study on aging and care

This study investigated the relationship between light and strenuous exercise and depression, as well as gender differences in this relationship, in a representative sample of 860 elderly Swedish suburb-dwelling men and women in age cohorts from 60 to 96 years, drawn from among participants in the Swedish National Aging and Care study. The relationship between depression and self-reported changes in exercise status over time was also examined. Exercise activities were measured with four survey questions, and depression, with the Montgomery Asberg Depression Rating Scale. The inactive elderly had higher depression scores than more active individuals, both in terms of light and strenuous exercise. The continuously active group had lower depression scores than both continuously inactive individuals and individuals reporting a shift from activity to inactivity during the preceding year. Light exercise had a somewhat stronger effect on depression for women.     

The Virtuality of Virtual Worlds,or What We Can Learn from Playacting Horse Girls and Marginalized Developers

This article discusses the emergence of Habbo Hotel as a large‐scale virtual world and its changing versions through time. We consider how social events taking place within the hotel are conditioned by designed‐in symbolic resources and how, in turn, with creative processes of symbolization, novel social objects emerge out of particular interactions. We then discuss how the membership trajectories of hotel members are essential in understanding how these interactions are shaped and evolve. We also look at how the digital infrastructure and its evolution lends itself to being material for actualizing particular social worlds within the hotel and how the trajectory of the infrastructure reflects the relationship between the user and the developer communities of Habbo. Finally, we discuss why, to understand more fully what virtual worlds consist of at large, analysts should look into the mutually constitutive interactions among users, developers, and surrounding business models over longer periods of time in the constantly varying actualization of any given virtual world.     

How Family Policy Context Shapes Mental Wellbeing of Mothers and Fathers

Social Indicators Research - Most studies show that parents have a lower level of wellbeing than non-parents. An interesting question is if this is true in different contexts, such for instance...     

Prostitution Stigma and Its Effect on the Working Conditions,Personal Lives,and Health of Sex Workers

Researchers have shown that stigma is a fundamental determinant of behavior, well-being, and health for many marginalized groups, but sex workers are notably absent from their analyses. This article aims to fill the empirical research gap on sex workers by reviewing the mounting evidence of stigmatization attached to sex workers’ occupation, often referred to as “prostitution” or “whore” stigma. We give special attention to its negative effect on the working conditions, personal lives, and health of sex workers. The article first draws attention to the problem of terminology related to the subject area and makes the case for consideration of prostitution stigmatization as a fundamental cause of social inequality. We then examined the sources of prostitution stigma at macro, meso, and micro levels. The third section focuses on tactics sex workers employ to manage, reframe, or resist occupational stigma. We conclude with a call for more comparative studies of stigma related to sex work to contribute to the general stigma literature, as well as social policy and law reform.     

In the wake of radical right electoral success: a cross-country comparative study of anti-immigration attitudes over time

This paper tests the theoretically assumed relationship between the parliamentary presence of radical right parties (RRPs) and anti-immigration attitudes over time. Data come from six rounds of the European Social Survey between 2002 and 2012. Using multi-level models with applications for repeated cross-sectional data, the study examines the implications of changes tied to the political advancements of the radical right with a focus on three possible scenarios: people's attitudes about immigration have generally become more negative, opposition towards immigration has become more dependent on immigrants' ethnicity, and attitudes towards immigration have become more polarised. Contrary to expectations, it is found that neither the presence, the representational strength, nor the nationalistic framing of an RRP affect opposition towards immigration over time. Thus, the conclusion is that the RRPs, so far, have not driven anti-immigration attitudes in Europe. Possible explanations for these results are discussed in the concluding section.