The relationship of departures in social sex-role to the abridgment of civil liberties

This article examines the relationship of departures from the feminine stereotype for women and the masculine stereotype for men to the abridgment of civil liberties. The methodology is described for determining conformity to and departures from social sex-role stereotypes. Results show that: (a) there was more conformity than departure from social sex-role stereotypes; (b) there were proportionately more violations of the right of equality for those who departed; (c) sexual orientation was more often known for those who departed; (d) biological sex was not related to the violations of particular civil liberties for those who departed; and (e) for modes of conflict resolution, there was proportionately more use of avoidance by those who departed.     

Methodology for studying discrimination based on sexual orientation and social sex-role stereotypes

This article presents the methodology used in collecting data for the study of the relationship of sexual orientation and social sex-role to the protection of civil liberties. The methodology is designed to determine how departures in sexual orientation and social sex-role are the basis for the abridgment of civil liberties. Departure in sexual orientation is defined as physical sexual activity involving individuals of the same sex. Departure in social sex-role stereotypes is defined as departing from or conforming to the feminine stereotype for men, the feminine stereotype for women, the masculine sterotype for men, and the masculine stereotype for women.     

Respect for Civil Liberties During the Third Wave of Democratization: Presenting a New Dataset

The literature on state repression has increased voluminously in recent decades. However, First Amendment-type civil liberties have not received much attention compared to neighbouring freedoms such as electoral rights and physical integrity rights. This neglect is arguably related to the lack of high-quality disaggregated measures. In this paper, we present a new dataset on respect for civil liberties—the Civil Liberties Dataset (CLD)—which includes indicators on freedom of expression, freedom of assembly and association, freedom of religion, and freedom of movement for 207 countries in the period 1976–2010. An assessment of the levels, development, sequencing, and correlates of civil liberties not only reveals a number of interesting patterns, it also shows that the CLD has a competitive edge vis-à-vis extant measures. We conclude that the CLD opens new avenues for research on state repression in general and civil liberties in particular.     

Adding Insult to Injury: Sex,Sexual Orientation,and Juror Decision-Making in a Case of Intimate Partner Violence

Societal definitions of intimate partner violence (IPV) are highly gendered and heteronormative, resulting in dissonance regarding cases of same-sex IPV. This study explored perceptions of IPV when the context of the case is inconsistent with societal norms regarding sex and sexuality. Mock jurors read a vignette describing a case of alleged IPV in which the sex and sexual orientation of the defendant were manipulated. Participants (N = 415) rendered a verdict and provided ratings of the defendant, victim, and case. Results suggest participants were more confident in a guilty verdict when the defendant was male, compared to female. Further, male defendants were perceived as more morally responsible, but only when the victim was female. Perceptions regarding the crime suggest violence perpetrated by a man against a woman is viewed more adversely than any other condition. Data are discussed in terms of implications for legal decision-makers and public policy.     

Differences between previously married and never married 'gay' men: family background, childhood experiences and current attitudes

Despite a large body of literature on the development of sexual orientation, little is known about why some gay men have been (or remain) married to a woman. In the current study, a self-selected sample of 43 never married gay men ('never married') and 26 gay men who were married to a woman ('previously married') completed a self-report questionnaire. Hypotheses were based on five possible explanations for gay men's marriages: (a) differences in sexual orientation (i.e., bisexuality); (b) internalized homophobia; (c) religious intolerance; (d) confusion created because of childhood/adolescent sexual experiences; and/or (e) poor psychological adjustment. Previously married described their families' religious beliefs as more fundamentalist than never married. No differences were found between married' and never married' ratings of their sexual orientation and identity, and levels of homophobia and self-depreciation. Family adaptability and family cohesion and the degree to which respondents reported having experienced child maltreatment did not distinguish between previously married and never married. The results highlight how little is understood of the reasons why gay men marry, and the need to develop an adequate theoretical model.     

Research on sexual orientation: definitions and methods

An extensive survey of the research literature on sexual orientation was undertaken for the purpose of determining how sexual orientation had been conceptually and operationally defined and how research subjects had been identified and selected. Two hundred-twenty-eight articles from 47 different journals were analyzed. Sexual orientation, it was found, was conceptually defined in 28 studies and operationally defined in 168. In 196 studies respondents were identified on the basis of the settings in which they were found. Because of the great variation in both conceptual and operational definitions, it was almost impossible to determine with certainty the theoretical frameworks used in the studies. The wide divergency in the definitions of sexual orientation, the investigators conclude, is symptomatic of an underlying conceptual confusion.     

Assessment of sexual orientation

This paper reviews the multitude of methods which have been utilized to assess sexual orientation. The basic assumption of most of the previous methods of assessment is that sexual orientation is determined by one's gender or genitalia and the gender or genitalia of the individual one is attracted to. This assumption is challenged and the complexity of sexual orientation is illustrated. Consequently, a model for assessment of sexual orientation is proposed which includes nine dimensions: current relationship status, self-identification identity, ideal self-identification identity, global acceptance of their current sexual orientation identity, physical identity, gender identity, sex-role identity, and sexual orientation identity as measured by behavior, fantasies and emotional attachments, and finally the individual's past and present perception of their sexual identity compared to their idealized future.     

Are Gay Men and Lesbians Discriminated Against When Applying for Jobs? A Four-City,Internet-Based Field Experiment

An Internet-based field experiment was conducted to examine potential hiring discrimination based on sexual orientation; specifically, the “first contact” between job applicants and employers was looked at. In response to Internet job postings on CareerBuilder.com®, more than 4,600 resumes were sent to employers in 4 U.S. cities: Philadelphia, Chicago, Dallas, and San Francisco. The resumes varied randomly with regard to gender, implied sexual orientation, and other characteristics. Two hypotheses were tested: first, that employers' response rates vary by the applicants' assumed sexuality; and second, that employers' Response Rates by Sexuality vary by city. Effects of city were controlled for to hold constant any variation in labor market conditions in the 4 cities. Based on employer responses to the applications, it was concluded that there is no evidence that gay men or lesbians are discriminated against in their first encounter with employers, and no significant variation across cities in these encounters was found. Implications of these results for the literature on hiring discrimination based on sexual orientation, the strengths and limitations of the research, and the potential for the Internet-based field experiment design in future studies of discrimination are discussed.     

Immutability, science, and legislative debate over gay, lesbian and bisexual rights

Many gay rights advocates argued in the 1990s that scientific research claiming that sexual orientation is immutable should contribute to gaining civil rights for gays, lesbians and bisexuals. This paper analyzes ten legislative debates that took place at the local, state and federal levels over whether to adopt antidiscrimination laws, before and after the research was published. We hypothesize that if the research has had the impacts hoped for by gay rights supporters, then debates over gay rights should reflect certain changes consistent with such impacts. Although discussion of the origins of sexual orientation among legislators rose in the aftermath of the studies, we fail to find that the science had a major impact on the debate strategies pursued by either pro- or antigay rights legislators. Whether sexual orientation is immutable or a choice has not been a central claim of the two sides in the debate. Gay rights opponents even appear somewhat more willing to assert that sexual orientation is a choice after the studies than before. Furthermore, when the proponents of gay rights assert the immutability argument, they are as likely as not to invoke the cultural authority of science. We explain these outcomes by showing why the immutability issue is not of central relevance to most legislators or necessary for either side's key arguments. We also show that the scientific evidence merely supplemented a large amount of anecdotal information that legislators already possessed that spoke to the origins of sexual orientation.     

Sexual orientation: a multi-variable dynamic process

Theory and research concerning sexual orientation has been restricted in its scope and influence by the lack of clear and widely accepted definitions of terms like heterosexual, bisexual, and homosexual. In an attempt to better demarcate and understand the complexities of human sexual attitudes, emotions, and behavior, the Klein Sexual Orientation Grid (KSOG) was developed and administered. The KSOG is composed of seven variables that are dimensions of sexual orientation, each of which is rated by the subject as applying to the present, past, or ideal. Analysis of the data from subjects who filled out the KSOG in Forum Magazine indicated that the instrument was a reliable and valid research tool which took into consideration the multi-variable and dynamic aspects of sexual orientation.     

Is Patients' Sexual Orientation a Blind Spot of Family Physicians?

ABSTRACT

Even though certain health needs of gay, lesbian, and bisexual (GLB) patients are unique and different from those of the heterosexual patient, physicians do not usually ask patients about their sexual orientation. This study investigates family physicians' common practice regarding their patients' sexual orientation. Most of the physicians surveyed knew of less than 0.5% GLB patients in their practice; 44.4% did not know of any GLB patients. Only one physician commonly asked his patients about their sexual orientation; other physicians rarely or never asked. Asking patients about their sexual orientation significantly (P < 0.01) predicted the number of GLB patients known to the physician. Asking about patients' sexual orientation is not a common practice for family physicians, and, thus, they are usually unaware of the GLB patients in their practice.     

Civil unions in Vermont: political attitudes, religious fundamentalism, and sexual prejudice

In 2000, Vermont passed civil union legislation that granted same-sex couples the same legal rights as traditionally married opposite sex couples. This study examined the influence that sexual prejudice, religious fundamentalism, social dominance orientation, and support for civil unions had on voters' choice for governor in the subsequent election. Results showed that support for civil unions was a primary motivator for many voters in the election, and that sexual prejudice, religious fundamentalism, and social dominance orientation were unique predictors of voters' choices. These results show that prejudice can be a key factor in determining whom voters elect to represent them in government.     

Competing Claims: Religious Affiliation and African Americans’ Intolerance of Homosexuals

Literature on religion and political intolerance indicates competing expectations about how Black Protestant church affiliation affects African Americans’ attitudes about civil liberties. On the one hand, Black Protestant theology emphasizes personal freedom and social justice, factors generally linked to more tolerant attitudes. On the other hand, Black Protestants tend to be conservative on family and social issues, factors often linked to intolerance of gays and lesbians. Data from the General Social Survey are used to examine the influence of religious group identification, as well as other relevant aspects of religiosity, on political intolerance among African Americans. Results indicate that although other aspects of religion (beliefs and behaviors) help explain variation in political intolerance, Black Protestant church affiliation has no relationship with attitudes about the civil liberties of homosexuals. However, additional tests show that Black Protestant church affiliation significantly predicts intolerance of other target groups (atheists and racists).     

Creative Work Environments in Sport Organizations: The Influence of Sexual Orientation Diversity and Commitment to Diversity

Drawing from creative capital theory, the purpose of this study was to examine the degree to which sexual orientation diversity and commitment to diversity were predictive of workplaces that fostered creativity. Data were collected from 653 senior level athletic administrators and aggregated to the athletic department level of analysis (n = 199). Moderated regression indicated that sexual orientation diversity did not influence the presence of a creative work environment. There was however, a significant sexual orientation diversity?×?commitment to diversity interaction. When commitment to diversity was high, there was a positive association between sexual orientation diversity and a creative work environment; on the other hand, when commitment to diversity was low, the aforementioned relationship was negative. Results provide support for the notion that all diversity forms can be a source of enrichment and understanding, thereby benefiting the workplace.     

Psychosocial contexts of the homosexuality of Filipino men in heterosexual unions

The Philippines is one developing country in which a systematic inquiry on the homosexuality of men in heterosexual consensual union is rare. With the thought that the public can be guided more knowledgeably in forming some responsible knowledge and opinion about homosexual men's lives within heterosexual unions, a small-scale exploratory study was carried out and completed in 1997 among 15 married or co-habiting men in Metro Manila, the Philippines. The research delved into respondents' sexual histories; their perceptions of own homosexual attraction, desire and orientation; and their reasons, motivations and expectations for marrying or cohabiting. It also looked into respondents' reports of whether their partners knew their sexual orientation; respondents' roles and responsibilities in household management and decision making; and effects of respondents' homosexuality on marital and familial relationships.     

Bisexual women in marriages

A clinical sample of women who were currently or previously married were surveyed regarding demographics, homosexual experiences before marriage, problems in marriage, and sexual orientation. The average age of the 45 participants was 35.9. Before marriage, 21 (47%) were somewhat aware of their homosexual feelings but were much less likely to have thought of or identified themselves as homosexuals. Sexual difficulties were very common in these marriages (89%), the most cited sexual difficulty being a lack of sexual desire for their spouse (62%). Based upon Kinsey-type ratings, the sample could be described as almost exclusively heterosexual in behavior and fantasies before marriage. Some changes could be seen during marriage toward more of a homosexual orientation. The dramatic change, however, occurred following marriage, when the women reported even more of a homosexual orientation, tending toward the homosexual end of the Kinsey continuum. At the time of the study, a majority of the sample was, in fact, relating almost exclusively to other women. This study found that, compared to homosexual men who have been married, these women are more likely to marry at an earlier age, unlikely to be aware of their homosexual feelings prior to marriage, and more likely to terminate their marriage earlier because of conflicts arising as a result of their bisexual orientation and sexual dissatisfaction.     

Negotiating multiple identities: how African-American gay and bisexual men persist at a predominantly White institution

This consensual qualitative research (CQR) study explores factors contributing to the persistence of African-American gay and bisexual men at a predominately White institution (PWI). Eight participants consistently noted that involvement with an African-American community was crucial to navigating the challenges of attending a PWI. Participants reported that their racial identity was more salient than their sexual orientation in creating social support, and they described feeling uncomfortable using lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) resources. Implications, including education about sexual orientation within African-American campus communities, LGBT outreach to communities of color, and continued institutional support for African-American campus organizations, are discussed.     

Creative work environments in sport organizations: the influence of sexual orientation diversity and commitment to diversity

Drawing from creative capital theory, the purpose of this study was to examine the degree to which sexual orientation diversity and commitment to diversity were predictive of workplaces that fostered creativity. Data were collected from 653 senior level athletic administrators and aggregated to the athletic department level of analysis (n = 199). Moderated regression indicated that sexual orientation diversity did not influence the presence of a creative work environment. There was however, a significant sexual orientation diversity × commitment to diversity interaction. When commitment to diversity was high, there was a positive association between sexual orientation diversity and a creative work environment; on the other hand, when commitment to diversity was low, the aforementioned relationship was negative. Results provide support for the notion that all diversity forms can be a source of enrichment and understanding, thereby benefiting the workplace.     

Sexual minorities and selection of a primary care physician in a midwestern U.S. city

How and why sexual minorities select a primary care physician is critical to the development of methods for attracting these clients to a physician's practice. Data obtained from a sample of sexual minorities in a mid-size city in our nation's heartland would indicate that these patients are loyal when the primary care physician has a positive attitude toward their sexual orientation. The data also confirms that most sexual minorities select same sex physicians but not necessarily same sexual orientation physicians because of lack of knowledge of physicians' sexual orientation. Family practice physicians and other primary care physicians can reach out to this population by encouraging word of mouth advertising and by displaying literature on health issues for all sexual orientations in their offices.     

Individuals' Beliefs about the Etiology of Same-Sex Sexual Orientation

We examined the relationships between beliefs about the etiology of having a same-sex sexual orientation, sexual prejudice, and support for gay-relevant legislation using the justification-suppression model of prejudice as our theoretical foundation. Results indicated that more belief that a same-sex sexual orientation was due to nurture factors predicted less support for gay-relevant legislation, and that this relationship was mediated by levels of sexual prejudice. The opposite pattern was found for belief that a same-sex sexual orientation was due to nature factors. This suggests that beliefs about the etiology of sexual orientation may serve as justification (or suppression) factors in the expression of prejudice toward gay men and lesbians.