The Human Capital Characteristics and Household Living Standards of Returning International Migrants in Eastern and Southern Africa

Africa’s experience with return migration is not new. However, few empirical studies have examined the social and economic characteristics of returning migrants within the continent. In this study, the human capital endowments and household living standards of returning migrants in Uganda and South Africa are examined using recently available data. The study compares returnees in both countries with immigrants as well as the native‐born population with no international migration experience. It also investigates how factors such as previous country of residence, year of arrival, and other demographic factors predict levels of education and living standards among returning migrants. In Uganda, the results show that recently arrived returning migrants had better educational endowments than both immigrants and non‐migrants. Migrants who returned to Uganda following the fall of Idi Amin’s regime had the lowest educational levels and lowest living standards compared to other returnees. Furthermore, the results indicate that previous residence in countries in the West was associated with four additional years of schooling while returning migrants arriving from other African countries had the lowest levels of schooling among returning migrants. In South Africa, the study finds that returnees arriving almost immediately following the end of Apartheid had the highest levels of education compared to either immigrants or non‐migrants. Returnees on average also had the highest household living standards in South Africa. Among South African immigrants, the results indicate that those arriving towards the end of the century had lower educational endowments compared to immigrants who arrived in the country two to four years after the end of Apartheid.     

Poverty and disability in Eastern and Western Cape Provinces,South Africa

The impact of disability on the living conditions of people living in specifically resource‐poor areas in South Africa has not previously been addressed. This paper presents a comparison of people with a disability and their non‐disabled peers with respect to some key poverty indicators among a sample of Xhosa speaking individuals in resource‐poor areas of Eastern and Western Cape Provinces. A questionnaire on the level of living conditions (household composition and socio‐economic characteristics) and a detailed disability questionnaire that captured more specific details of the disability experience of the individual with a disability were adapted to the South African context and utilised. Despite the improved situation of households with a disabled family member in terms of financial resources (due primarily to the allocation of disability grants), other measures of poverty (education and employment) remain divisive for those with disabilities.     

Career Development and School Success in Adolescents: The Role of Career Interventions

Using longitudinal survey data, the present study examined the effect of participation on career development skills in 6 career education experiences and school success among South Korean adolescents (2,473 young men, 2,132 young women; mean age = 15.86 years). Regression analyses indicated that students who participated in career education programs in school once or twice over a 2‐year period had the highest scores in both career development skills and school success. In contrast, there was no relationship between career education, career development skills, and school success for students who participated in career education programs only once or not at all. Results support the influence of career education interventions on students' career development skills and school success. This study provides accountability information on the effectiveness of career education interventions at South Korean secondary schools. The authors offer suggestions about more effective career interventions that can be applied in South Korean high schools.     

Orphanhood and School Attendance in Nigeria: Do Gender and Household Income Matter?

Using the 2010 Nigeria Education Data Survey, this research examines the interaction of paternal and maternal/double orphanhood with gender and household income on school attendance; we ascertain whether the relationship varies by age and urban-rural residence. The research employs an economic explanation and the sociocultural construction of the gender division of labor in sub-Saharan Africa as theoretical frameworks. Findings show that the combination of being a maternal/double orphan and being female or living in a poor household leads to the lowest probability of attending school. The results also indicate that female maternal/double orphans who live in rural areas and whose age is eleven or older have the lowest probability of attending school. Both results are statistically significant. The findings support the economic explanation and the theory of sociocultural construction of the gender division of labor. Future policies should focus on subsidizing the costs of schooling for orphans.     

Childhood poverty, early motherhood and adult social exclusion

Childhood poverty and early parenthood are both high on the current political agenda. The key new issue that this research addresses is the relative importance of childhood poverty and of early motherhood as correlates of outcomes later in life. How far are the ‘effects’ of early motherhood on later outcomes due to childhood precursors, especially experience of childhood poverty? Subsidiary questions relate to the magnitude of these associations, the particular levels of childhood poverty that prove most critical, and whether, as often assumed, only teenage mothers are subsequently disadvantaged, or are those who have their first birth in their early twenties similarly disadvantaged? The source of data for this study is the National Child Development Study. We examine outcomes at age 33 for several domains of adult social exclusion: welfare, socio‐economic, physical health, emotional well‐being and demographic behaviour. We control for a wide range of childhood factors: poverty; social class of origin and of father; mother's and father's school leaving age; family structure; housing tenure; mother's and father's interest in education; personality attributes; performance on educational tests; and contact with the police by age 16. There are clear associations for the adult outcomes with age at first birth, even after controlling for childhood poverty and the other childhood background factors. Moreover, we demonstrate that the widest gulf in adult outcomes occurs for those who enter motherhood early (before age 23), though further rein‐forced by teenage motherhood for most adult outcomes. We also show that any experience of childhood poverty is clearly associated with adverse outcomes in adulthood, with reinforcement for higher levels of childhood poverty for a few outcomes.     

Educational and employment outcomes of adults formerly placed in foster care: Results from the Northwest Foster Care Alumni Study

This study evaluated the intermediate and long-term effects of family foster care on adult functioning using a sample of 659 young adults from two public and one private child welfare agencies, case record reviews, structured interviews, and a survey response rate of 76%. Foster care alumni completed high school at a rate comparable to the general population, but a disproportionately high number of them completed high school via a GED. Alumni completion rates for postsecondary education were low. Consequently, many alumni were in fragile economic situations: one-third of the alumni had household incomes at or below the poverty level, one-third had no health insurance, and more than one in five experienced homelessness after leaving foster care. Two foster care experience areas were estimated to significantly reduce the number of undesirable outcomes in the Education outcome domain: positive placement history (e.g., high placement stability, few failed reunifications), and having broad independent living preparation (as exemplified by having concrete resources upon leaving care). For the Employment and Finances outcome domain, receiving broad independent living preparation (as exemplified by having concrete resources upon leaving care) was estimated to significantly reduce the number of undesirable outcomes.     

Self‐Selection in Migration Between Developing Countries: The Role of Unobservable Skills of Gauteng's Migrant Population

The present study investigates the presence of self‐selection among internal and international migrants in Gauteng, South Africa and further disentangles the effects of observed and unobserved characteristics in the self‐selection of migrants by conducting Oaxaca‐Blinder decomposition on overall employment and self‐employment outcome variables. Our analysis, based on system‐GMM analysis of pseudo‐panel data, indicates that international migrants experienced markedly higher levels of employment than both locals and internal migrants driven by higher rates of informal and self‐employment. International migrants were also found to outperform their South African‐born counterparts on various variables indicative of well‐being like total household income, per capita household income, higher life satisfaction, and lower debt levels. Even though international migrants did not have higher levels of education, the Oaxaca‐Blinder decomposition provided evidence of the positive selection of international migrants to Gauteng, based on unobservable characteristics, to achieve higher levels of employment and self‐employment.     

Characteristics of men and women who complete or exit from an on‐line internet sexuality questionnaire: A study of instrument dropout biases

This study compared respondents who completed an Internet sexuality questionnaire and those who dropped out before completion. The study was in Swedish and comprised 3,614 respondents over a 2‐week period (53% males, 47% females). There were significant differences between males, of whom 51% dropped out before completion of the 175‐item questionnaire, and females, of whom 43% dropped out. Dropout in both genders followed a curve of negative acceleration. The data suggest that dropout is likely to be significant and gender and demographically biased, and to occur significantly earlier for men than for women. Geography, education, sexual orientation, age, relationship status, living arrangements, and Internet connection speed were related to dropout for men, while only relationship status and living arrangements, which were in the opposite direction from men, were related to dropout in women.     

Social Protection in a Context of HIV/AIDS: A Closer Look at South Africa

Abstract

South Africa is unusual in that it is experiencing high levels of AIDS morbidity and mortality, but is also able to afford a relatively developed system of social assistance. However, HIV/AIDS is affecting poverty in some unique ways and compounding other challenges such as unemployment. Its nature is such that it demands immediate action, balanced with a focus on long-term development. This is requiring a conceptual shift from ‘social security’ to ‘social protection’, since social assistance is not managing to address all dimensions of poverty and is also creating perverse incentives for people not to maximise their health. In South Africa, household studies comprise the most useful evidence to explore the particular challenges posed by HIV/AIDS. They indicate a need to review policies in all the social sectors and to focus on the issue of human capital.     

Firearm presence and storage practices in North Carolina homes

Firearms injuries are a leading cause of injury and death in North Carolina, including suicide, homicide, intentional assault, and unintentional injuries. Research has demonstrated that the presence of a firearm in a household increases the risk for homicide and suicide. This study examined two firearms-related risk factors, the presence of a firearm in the household and risky storage practices (loaded and unlocked), using the 2011 North Carolina Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS). We hypothesized that among household firearm owners, those who keep unlocked loaded firearms would be varied by demographic variables and also by tendencies for more risk-taking behaviors such as smoking and drinking. Results showed that those who were more likely to keep firearms in or around the home were male, older age, White race, married, with some post high school education, and with higher income. There were no differences by region, age, race, education, or income among those who kept firearms loaded and unlocked. Risky storage practices were related to social conditions such as marital status and number of adults and children in the household. The presence of firearms was lower among those who lived alone; however, among those with a firearm in the household, 42% of single adult households keep a loaded and/or unlocked firearm in the house, and up to 30% of households with children do as well. Behavioral risk factors such as smoking, binge drinking, and not using a seatbelt when driving a car were also related to firearms possession and storage conditions.     

Physical Abuse in Early Childhood and Transition to First Sexual Intercourse among Youth in Cape Town,South Africa

This study examined the relationship of physical abuse in early childhood and timing of first sexual intercourse among young South Africans aged 14 to 22 in Cape Town. Using the Cape Area Panel Survey and applying log-normal models, time ratios were estimated to show how rapidly or slowly youth experience first sexual intercourse. Results indicated that boys who experienced physical abuse in early childhood had faster timing to first sex. Boys and girls with violent school environments had faster timing to first sex. Race moderated the effects of physical abuse. Compared to Blacks, Coloreds who experienced higher levels of physical abuse in early childhood had faster timing to first sex. Youth with greater knowledge about HIV/AIDS and those with greater risk perception of contracting HIV/AIDS delayed first sex. On the basis of these findings, policy makers are encouraged to consider the early childhood experiences of youth when designing policies toward HIV/AIDS prevention in South Africa.     

Physical abuse in early childhood and transition to first sexual intercourse among youth in Cape Town, South Africa

This study examined the relationship of physical abuse in early childhood and timing of first sexual intercourse among young South Africans aged 14 to 22 in Cape Town. Using the Cape area panel survey and applying log-normal models, time ratios were estimated to show how rapidly or slowly youth experience first sexual intercourse. Results indicated that boys who experienced physical abuse in early childhood had faster timing to first sex. Boys and girls with violent school environments had faster timing to first sex. Race moderated the effects of physical abuse. Compared to Blacks, Coloreds who experienced higher levels of physical abuse in early childhood had faster timing to first sex. Youth with greater knowledge about HIV/AIDS and those with greater risk perception of contracting HIV/AIDS delayed first sex. On the basis of these findings, policy makers are encouraged to consider the early childhood experiences of youth when designing policies toward HIV/AIDS prevention in South Africa.     

Qualitative perceptions of the meaning of “headship” and female-headed households in post-apartheid South Africa

The identification of one household member as the head of the household remains a feature of household surveys conducted by Statistics South Africa. While the analytical relevance of this practice has been critiqued and while many national statistics agencies have abandoned the concept of a household head altogether, researchers in South Africa often use the characteristics of the household head in order to classify households. In particular, recent research has documented a rise in female headship in South Africa and a growing gap in poverty risks between female- and male-headed households in the post-apartheid period. Some of this work has also shown that the increase in female headship is due to the growing incidence of women living in households without men. The way that headship is assigned and what it actually means, however, is something of a “black box” in social science research. This paper presents the findings from a qualitative investigation of headship in South African households. The results suggest that most respondents attach meaning to the notion of a household head but that, as expected, some clear contradictions in the way that headship is assigned were encountered in the data. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications for using the characteristics of the head (and gender in particular) as a way to classify households and identifies some lessons for survey research protocols.     

For Richer or for Poorer? Evidence from Indonesia, South Africa, Spain, and Venezuela

We analyze household income dynamics using longitudinal data from Indonesia, South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), Spain and Venezuela. In all four countries, households with the lowest reported base-year income experienced the largest absolute income gains. This result is robust to reasonable amounts of measurement error in two of the countries. In three of the four countries, households with the lowest predicted base-year income experienced gains at least as large as their wealthier counterparts. Thus, with one exception, the empirical importance of cumulative advantage, poverty traps, and skill-biased technical change was no greater than structural or macroeconomic changes that favored initially poor households in these four countries.     

Cross‐Border Marriages in South Korea and the Challenges of Rising Multiculturalism

This study explores trends in international marriage migration, determinants of international marriage, and factors that affect employment and poverty status of marriage migrant females in Korea. The results suggest that the number of cross‐border marriages increased rapidly in the early 2000s but has declined since the mid‐2000s, perhaps because of the Korean government's strict regulations and of saturation in the demand for foreign wives. The analysis also indicated that rural males with a graduate degree have a similar probability to urban males with a high‐school education. Employment opportunities vary substantially by the foreign wife's country of origin, implying that social policies for addressing the difficulties of multicultural families should be tailored toward specific ethnic groups. Those who participated in work training programmes were significantly more likely to be employed than non‐participants, and the size of social support network significantly reduced the odds of living in poverty.     

Breaking down rural and urban bias and interrogating spatial inequality,evidence from South Africa

This article investigates current socioeconomic disparities within rural and urban areas. The empirical analysis is grounded in an examination of urban and rural bias theories, which have often underpinned poverty analysis. This article suggests that poverty analysis can be improved by moving beyond the rural–urban binary and investigating differences across all geographical types (when data are available). Using 2012 household survey data on South Africa, the article sheds lights on substantial differences—in household composition and access to services and assets—that are likely to make households located in particular geotypes far more vulnerable to poverty. Finally, the article discusses how development policy can better address the specific income‐generating constraints that disadvantaged areas face.     

Public education provision,private schooling and income redistribution

Availability of free public education induces a transfer in kind among households with school age children. We provide evidence of the redistributive character of public education provision. We estimate structural quantile treatment effects of household income on the distribution of expected educational transfers in kind. Under the assumption that education quality is a normal good, better services (ancillary to the core education mission) supplied by private schools increase quality therein and reduce the incentives for wealthy households to enroll in public education. Because of these incentives, rich families benefit less from educational transfers in kind and the public education system is redistributive. Using household survey data from Italy, we find that an increase in net income reduces the value of the expected educational in kind transfers for compulsory education.     

Why do People Disclose their HIV Status? Qualitative Evidence from a Group of Activist Women in Khayelitsha

Abstract

This study explores the bio-psychosocial context of HIV/AIDS in which eleven HIV-positive activist women from Khayelitsha negotiated the process of disclosing their HIV-positive status to significant others, specifically biological household members. The study is based on the narratives of a group of HIV-positive peer-educators in Cape Town, South Africa. The results suggest that community perceptions of HIV/AIDS are shaped by a wide variety of factors particular to the socio-cultural and political context of HIV/AIDS in South Africa. The process and outcomes of disclosure to others occurs within this shifting web of meanings, and in turn, reshapes them as people respond to the person who has just disclosed. Eight out of the eleven women disclosed to a close biological household member as these significant-others provided, or had the potential to provide, the appropriate support. Six of the eleven participants disclosed during the symptomatic phases of HIV/AIDS, while five were asymptomatic at the time. Four of the five who disclosed when asymptomatic were diagnosed while pregnant and had never experienced severe opportunistic infections. Additionally, these same four disclosed some time after diagnosis (nine months > t < two years). Of the six who disclosed in a state of ill-health, five disclosed immediately after diagnosis in order to access health-related social support. At this time, concerns regarding health and mortality superseded fears of rejection and discrimination due to AIDS-related stigma. The perceived potential benefits (social and health-related support) outweighed the perceived risks (stigmatisation and discrimination). When participants had never experienced serious illness, they disclosed in order to educate loved-ones, gain emotional support or challenge false popular perceptions of HIV/AIDS.     

A review of enabling factors in support intervention programmes for early school leavers: What are the implications for Sub-Saharan Africa?

One of the major problems facing education systems in Sub-Saharan Africa is the phenomenon of young people who leave school before completion. Research has shown that this phenomenon disadvantages young people and exposes them to various forms of social exclusion. Accordingly, there have been increasing calls for the scaling up of support intervention programmes for young people who leave school early. This paper analyses literature on support intervention programmes for early school leavers (ESLs) to identify enabling factors that can be promoted in future or in current less effective interventions. The review revealed that programmes that address the multiple disadvantages and needs of young people through flexible, holistic and intensive support approaches tend to be more attractive and beneficial to the participants. The findings from this review are crucial to policy makers and teachers working in support intervention programmes for ESLs.