Sexual Orientation Trajectories Based on Sexual Attractions,Partners, and Identity: A Longitudinal Investigation From Adolescence Through Young Adulthood Using a U.S. Representative Sample

Defining sexual minority status longitudinally over critical developmental periods is essential for understanding the roots of health disparities. Theory supports multidimensional continuums, but current research often examines single measures of sexual activity, sexual attractions, or self-labeled identity separately. Here, a new typology of longitudinal latent classes describes dynamic multidimensional processes continuing from late adolescence (ages 16 to 18) through the late 20s. Using Add Health data (N = 6,864), longitudinal latent class analysis (LLCA), a person-centered approach, showed significant differences between the orientation experiences of males and females (invariance tests led to stratification by sex). The male LLCA model predicted four classes: straight males (87.4%), minimal sexual expression males (6.5%), mostly straight and bi males (3.8%), and emerging gay males (2.4%). The female LLCA model predicted five classes: straight females (73.8%), minimal sexual expression females (7%), mostly straight discontinuous females (10.2%), emerging bi females (7.5%), and emerging lesbian females (1.5%). Some classes represent generally consistent indicators across dimensions over time, while other classes describe more emerging or discontinuous trajectories. Substantial changes were common not only from late adolescence to the early 20s but also from the early 20s to the late 20s, indicating that sexual orientation development continues throughout emerging adulthood.     

Familism Values,Family Time,and Mexican‐Origin Young Adults' Depressive Symptoms

Using longitudinal data across eight years, this study examined how parents' familism values in early adolescence predicted youths' depressive symptoms in young adulthood via youths' familism values and family time. We examined these processes among 246 Mexican‐origin families using interview and phone‐diary data. Findings revealed that fathers' familism values predicted male and female youths' familism values in middle adolescence. For female youth only, fathers' familism values also predicted youths' family time in late adolescence. The link between family time and young adults' depressive symptoms depended on parental acceptance and adolescent gender: Among female and male youth, family time predicted fewer depressive symptoms, but only when paternal acceptance was high. For female adolescents only, family time predicted fewer depressive symptoms when maternal acceptance was high but more depressive symptoms when maternal acceptance was low. Findings highlight family dynamics as the mechanisms through which familism values have implications for youths' adjustment.     

The role of fathers in reducing dating violence victimization and sexual risk behaviors among a national sample of Black adolescents

PurposeStructural equation modeling (SEM) was used to explore the impact of father-figures' involvement on reducing both dating violence and sexual risk among a national sample of Black American youth well as the possible mediating effect of dating violence on the relationship between father figure involvement and sexual risk behaviors.MethodsTo explore this phenomenon, sexually active Black adolescents between the ages of 13–21 with a romantic partner in the previous 18 months were selected (N = 422) from wave II of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health.ResultsThe analyses indicated that overall, perceived closeness to father figures reduced dating violence victimization among Black youth. When separated by gender, our hypothesis for male respondents was supported indicating that perceived closeness with their father figures resulted in a reduction in dating violence. However, the same hypothesis was not supported for female respondents. On the other hand, perceived closeness to father figures resulted in lower sexual risk behaviors for girls.ConclusionGiven the study's findings, researchers, practitioners, and policy makers should consider the importance of the father–child relationship in reducing problem behaviors among Black adolescents. In particular, emphasis should be given to the quality of the father–child relationship rather than general father involvement in reducing dating violence victimization and risky sexual behavior among sexually experienced Black adolescents.     

Trajectories of Sexual Risk From Middle Adolescence to Early Adulthood

Developmental trajectories of risky sexual behavior were identified in a multiethnic sample of 1,121 youth drawn from the Children of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth data set (NLSY79). Group-based trajectory modeling of a composite index of sexual risk taking revealed four sexual risk groups from ages 16 to 22: low risk, decreasing risk, increasing risk, and high risk. The Low Risk group exhibited low levels of risk across the study period. The Decreasing Risk group had high levels of sexual risk in adolescence that declined in early adulthood. The Increasing Risk and High Risk groups showed distinct risk patterns during adolescence but converged in early adulthood. When compared with adolescents in the low-risk group, individuals in the other groups were more likely to be male, had mothers who had an early birth, were less likely to live with both biological parents in early adolescence, had higher risk proneness, and reported more negative peer pressure.     

Socialization Influences on Early Adolescents' Cognitive Susceptibility and Transition to Sexual Intercourse

This study examined the relationship between perceived socialization from parents, school, peers, and media and adolescents' cognitive susceptibility to initiating sexual intercourse and transition to intercourse 2 years later. Baseline and follow‐up in‐home Audio‐Computer Assisted Self Interview surveys were completed by 854 Black and White male and female adolescents who, at baseline, were 12–14 years old and had not engaged in sexual intercourse. Results showed that stronger connections to parents and schools and less exposure to permissive sexual norms from peers and media were associated with less susceptibility and sexual behavior, especially among White adolescents. Susceptibility mediated 38–64% of the relations between parent and school socialization and sexual intercourse behavior, and mediated 28–53% of the peer and media socialization links to behavior. Findings provide support for social cognitive models of adolescents' behavior and suggest potential strategies for successful interventions to delay initiation of sexual intercourse.     

Sexual‐Minority and Heterosexual Youths' Peer Relationships: Experiences,Expectations, and Implications for Well‐Being

The current study compared the peer relationships and well‐being of 60 sexual‐minority (i.e., nonheterosexual) and 65 heterosexual youths between the ages of 15 and 23. Sexual‐minority youths had comparable self‐esteem, mastery, and perceived stress as did heterosexuals, but greater negative affect. Younger sexual‐minority male adolescents had smaller overall peer networks than did young male heterosexuals, whereas older male and female sexual minorities had larger numbers of extremely close friends within their networks than did heterosexuals. Younger sexual‐minority adolescents had lost or drifted away from more friends than did heterosexuals. Regardless of age, sexual‐minority youths reported disproportionately high worries about losing friends, low feelings of control in their romantic relationships, and fears of never finding the type of romantic relationship they wanted. Sexual‐minority youths that were “out” to more heterosexual peers had larger peer networks but more friendship loss and friendship worries. Youths' relationship experiences and concerns mediated sexual identity differences in negative affect.     

The Age of Independence,Revisited: Parents and Interracial Union Formation Across the Life Course

Romantic relationships that cross racial lines have grown since anti‐miscegenation laws were deemed unconstitutional. In The Age of Independence, Rosenfeld argued that parental influence over children's mate selection processes had waned. Rosenfeld, however, was not able to test this supposition directly because of his reliance on cross‐sectional census data. Using Waves I and III of Add Health for a cohort of individuals from 1994 to 2002, we examine whether parents matter in shaping their offspring's romantic attachments, by exploring whether adolescent reports of maternal closeness and parental control are associated with youth's likelihood of being in an interracial relationship in emerging adulthood. We find that parental factors do influence emerging adults’ romantic relationships; these associations vary by race, ethnicity, and gender. Among white men, maternal closeness in adolescence reduces the likelihood of being in an interracial relationship in emerging adulthood. Parental control elevates the odds of being in an interracial relationship among black and Hispanic women. We also find that parental decisions on where families live shape offspring's choices, as relative exogamous group size in adolescence is associated with interracial union formation in later life. Our findings suggest that parental influence remains salient in the partner choices made by emerging adults.     

Gender,Contraceptive Attitudes,and Condom Use in Adolescent Romantic Relationships: A Dyadic Approach

Although sexual risk behavior occurs in a dyadic context, most studies of adolescent sexual behavior focus on individuals. This study uses couple data (N = 488 couples) from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to examine how partners' contraceptive attitudes correlate over time and whether male or female partners' attitudes are better predictors of condom use. Net of their own prior attitudes, partners' prior attitudes predicted both male and female adolescents' Wave 2 attitudes. This association was stronger for female than for male adolescents, suggesting that female attitudes were influenced more by males' prior attitudes than vice versa. When entered together, only male adolescents' attitudes predicted dyadic condom use. Findings suggest that male partners may have greater influence on adolescent contraceptive decisions and that prevention programs should emphasize the relational context of sexual behavior.     

The Relationship Between Cognitive Ability and Experiences of Vaginal,Oral, and Anal Sex in the United States

Few studies have investigated the sexual development of populations with low cognitive abilities in the United States. This article examines the relationship between cognitive ability and various sexual experiences from adolescence (ages 12 to 18) to early adulthood (ages 28 to 34). Data were from 13,845 respondents interviewed at Waves I and IV of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health), a probability sample of adolescents in the United States followed from adolescence to adulthood. Adjusted logistic regression models were used to study relationships between cognitive ability, approximated by the Add Health Picture Vocabulary Test (AHPVT), and experiences of vaginal, oral, and anal sex. After controlling for biological sex, age, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (SES), individuals in the lowest cognitive ability group had significantly lower odds of experiencing each type of sex than those in the average ability group. Although individuals in the highest cognitive ability group had significantly lower odds of experiencing vaginal intercourse than those in the average ability group, this association did not remain significant when analyses were stratified by biological sex. These differences in experiences have implications for future health and warrant further study to understand policy implications for sexual health services and education.     

CLOSENESS WITH PARENTS AND PERCEIVED CONSEQUENCES OF PREGNANCY AMONG MALE AND FEMALE ADOLESCENTS

Using the 1994–1995 National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, we examine the association between closeness with parents and teen beliefs regarding the consequences of pregnancy. Unlike previous studies in this area, we include measures of closeness to both mother and father and examine effects for both male and female adolescents by family type (two-biological- or two-adoptive-parent, stepfather, and single-mother families). Our findings indicate that parental closeness is most salient for boys living with two biological or adoptive parents. For girls living with two biological or adoptive parents and boys and girls living in stepfather families, controlling for other aspects of the parent-child relationship, as well as adolescent, socioeconomic, and demographic characteristics, eliminates the protective influence of closeness to parents. For teens living in single-mother families, closeness with mother has no effect on beliefs about the consequences of pregnancy. Overall, our findings indicate that it is teen beliefs regarding parental viewpoints on educational achievement and engagement in sexual activity, rather than closeness per se, that has the link to adolescent beliefs about the consequences of pregnancy.     

Sexual Partners and Contraceptive Use: A 16‐Year Prospective Study Predicting Abstinence and Risk Behavior

Antecedents and correlates of sexual behavior among 167 (46% female) adolescents were examined in this multi‐informant longitudinal study. Data were collected at birth through middle adolescence. Data on number of sexual partners and contraception use at age 16 defined sexual abstinence (SAs, n=73), high‐risk sexual behavior (HRTs, n=45) and low‐risk sexual behavior (LRTs, n=49) groups. Moffitt's (1993) antisocial behavior taxonomy, problem behavior theory ( Jessor & Jessor, 1977 ), social control theory (Hierschi), and a biosocial model ( Udry, 1988 ) guided expectations of differential group prediction. Variables from each of three developmental periods (<age 12, ages 12–13, age 16) were significantly associated with sexual behavior groups. The most salient factors that differentiated LRTs from SAs were physical maturation at age 13 and romantic relationship progression and alcohol use at age 16. Romantic relationship progression and drug use at age 16 differentiated HRTs from SAs.     

Coming Closer in Adolescence: Convergence in Mother,Father, and Adolescent Reports of Parenting

Parent–child relationships change during adolescence. Furthermore, parents and adolescents perceive parenting differently. We examined the changes in perceptions of parental practices in fathers, mothers, and adolescents during adolescence. Furthermore, we investigated if fathers', mothers', and adolescents' perceptions converge during adolescence. Following 497 families across six waves (ages 13–18), we investigated the development of parental support and behavioral control using mother and father self‐reports, and adolescent reports for mothers and fathers. We found curvilinear decrease for support and control. Parent–adolescent convergence emerged over the 6 years: those with higher intercepts had a steeper decrease, whereas correlations among parent and adolescent reports increased. This multi‐informant study sheds light on the development of parent–adolescent convergence on perceptions of parenting.     

The Salience of Adolescent Romantic Experiences for Romantic Relationship Qualities in Young Adulthood

Conceptual links between aspects of adolescents' dating experiences (i.e., involvement and quality; ages 15–17.5) and qualities of their romantic relationships in young adulthood (ages 20–21) were examined in a prospective longitudinal design. Even after accounting for earlier relationship experiences with parents and peers, aspects of adolescent dating experiences predicted romantic relationship qualities in young adulthood. Adolescents who dated fewer partners in mid‐adolescence and who experienced a better quality dating relationship at age 16 demonstrated romantic partner interactions characterized by smoother relationship process in young adulthood (e.g., negotiating conflict to mutual satisfaction, effective and timely caregiving/seeking); adolescents who dated more partners in mid‐adolescence displayed greater negative affect in romantic partner interactions in young adulthood.     

Multidimensional Profiles of Religiosity Among Adolescents: Associations With Sexual Behaviors and Romantic Relationships

Religiosity is associated with sexual behavior in adolescence; however, religiosity is a multidimensional construct, and it is not clear how different patterns of religiosity may differentially predict sexual behaviors and romantic relationships. We apply latent class analysis to nationally representative data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health; N = 10,149) to examine (1) what religiosity profiles exist among adolescents and (2) how they predict sexual behavior and romantic relationship status in adolescence and young adulthood. Religiosity in multiple domains was associated with lesser odds of sexual behavior compared to profiles marked by only affiliation, private, or public religiosity. Findings suggest that examining multiple facets of religiosity together is important for understanding how religiosity is associated with sexual behavior.     

Condom Use Trajectories in Adolescence and the Transition to Adulthood: The Role of Mother and Father Support

Few studies have investigated how mother and father support differ on predicting youths' sexual risk behavior. We therefore examined the influence of parental support on condom use trajectories and its correlates in a predominantly African American sample [(N=627; 53% female; M = 14.86 years (SD=. 64)] from adolescence to young adulthood. We used hierarchical growth curve modeling to examine the relationship between condom use, substance use, psychological distress and parental support prospectively. We found that consistent condom use decreased over time and was associated negatively with psychological distress and substance use. Furthermore, both maternal and paternal support were associated with more condom use over time. We discuss the implications of our findings for HIV prevention programs.     

Work and Sexual Trajectories Among African American Youth

The beneficial or deleterious effects of employment on youth and well-being have been highly contested. This study explores whether work influences youths' sexual risk correlates in a sample of African Americans (N = 562; 55% females; M = 14.5 years, SD = 0.6 years) followed longitudinally from adolescence to early adulthood. The study used growth curve modeling to test the association between number of hours worked and condom use, sex partners' age differences, and number of partners over time. Working a greater number of hours was associated with less condom use, with the effect varying by youths' grade point average. Working a greater number of hours was associated with older sex partners among female youth. No association was found between work and number of partners. The findings suggest that working during adolescence and early adulthood increased participants' sexual activity, thus lending some support for the work consequences perspective. The implications for future research and youth development programs are discussed.     

Correlates of Self-Esteem Among College Students Offspring from Divorced Families:

This research examines whether factors found to be relevant to children's adjustment following parental divorce do indeed have a significant relationship to the self-esteem of young adult college students who have experienced parental divorce during childhood or adolescence. These factors include gender, social class, age at the time of parental divorce, remarriage of the custodial mother, the amount of contact between the non-residential father and his offspring, and feelings of closeness between the non-residential father and his offspring. The results of a multiple regression analysis indicate that contact with the non-residential father has a significant impact on the self-esteem of female offspring, whereas the age at the time of parental divorce is the most sigmticant factor contributing to the self-esteem of male offspring. Results also indicate there is no significant difference in self-esteem levels among male and female offspring from divorced families.     

A prospective study of the onset of sexual behavior and sexual risk in youth perinatally infected with HIV

Perinatally HIV-infected (PHIV+) youth are surviving into adolescence and young adulthood. Understanding the sexual development of PHIV+ youth is vital to providing them with developmentally appropriate HIV-prevention programs. Using pooled data (N = 417) from two longitudinal studies focused on HIV among youth (51% female; 39% HIV+) and their caregivers (92% female; 46% HIV+), the rate of sexual onset during adolescence across four youth-caregiver combinations was compared: PHIV+ youth with HIV+caregivers (12%), PHIV+ youth with HIV- caregivers (27%), HIV- youth with HIV+caregivers (34%), and HIV- youth with HIV- caregivers (27%). Youth with HIV- caregivers were more likely than other youth-caregiver groups to have had their sexual onset. Youth with HIV+ caregivers reported a slower rate of onset of penetrative sex across the adolescent years. Findings are discussed by highlighting the role that both youth and caregiver HIV status play in the onset of sexual behavior across adolescence.     

Development of Sexual Expectancies among Adolescents: Contributions by Parents,Peers and the Media

To expand the scant research on sexual expectancies development among non–sexually active adolescents, we examined the relationship between adolescents' exposure to four socializing agents—mother/female guardian, father/male guardian, peers, and television programs with high sexual content—and their endorsement of four sexual expectancies: social benefit, pleasure, social risk, and health risk. Data are from Waves 2 and 3 of a three-wave annual longitudinal study conducted among California adolescents, the majority of whom were not sexually active (N = 914, 84%). Structural equation models were conducted to examine cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between the socializing agents and the sexual expectancies. Cross-sectional results indicate associations between peer sexual communication and social benefit, pleasure, and social risk expectancies. A positive association was found between exposure to music videos and social benefit expectancies, and a negative association was found between exposure to music videos and health risk expectancies. Longitudinal results suggest that communication with peers positively predicted pleasure expectancies and negatively predicted social risk expectancies. No other socializing agents were associated with any sexual expectancies. An invariance test found that significant correlations were similar across the different age groups. Results suggest that efforts to support positive sexual decision making among non–sexually active adolescents should target peer sexual communication.     

Casual Sexual Relationships and Mental Health in Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood

Casual sexual relationships are relatively common in emerging adulthood. Yet the mental health implications of engaging in these relationships are unclear; past research has found negative associations, positive associations, or no association with mental health. In addition, little research has accounted for mental health status prior to entering casual sexual relationships. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (N = 12,401), we measured mental health prior to engaging in casual sexual relationships and subsequent mental health after engaging in these relationships. We found that suicidal ideation and depressive symptoms in adolescence were associated with entrance into casual sexual relationships in emerging adulthood. Furthermore, casual sexual relationships were associated with an increased likelihood of reporting suicidal ideation in emerging adulthood.