UNRAVELING THE ECONOMIC PARADOX OF FEMALE-HEADED HOUSEHOLDS IN MEXICO: The Role of Family Networks

An extensive amount of research has shown that female-headed households are among the most disadvantaged in the United States. By contrast, households headed by single mothers in Mexico have median per capita income levels that are the same or higher than those headed by men and are no more likely to be living in poverty. These findings are surprising, given the many disadvantages that Mexican women face in the labor market and the added difficulties for single mothers of managing work and family life. We propose four explanations for the relatively high income levels of female-headed households in Mexico: (1) female heads' more advanced stage in the life course compared to male heads, (2) the greater financial support they receive from extended family members, (3) the international migration of the partners of female heads, and (4) a selection process whereby only women with sufficient income head their own households, while others move into households headed by someone else. Using a nationally representative survey we find that economic transfers from relatives living within the country and abroad, as well as a selection effect explain female-headed households' relatively high income.     

Single Parenting in the African American Community: Implications for Public Policy and Practice

The percentage of female-headed African American families has increased significantly since the 1960s. It is now estimated that over half of all African American children will grow up in a female-headed household. This article examines factors related to the formation of these households as well as the challenges associated with these households. Policies and programs that have been implemented to treat these families are examined.     

Editorial

A gender perspective requires examining how gender roles affect the ways in which various family members can participate in the wider community, economy, and state. It is important to recognize the disparity between perceptions about the family as a benign institution and the reality that many families consist of a paradoxical blend of love, support, friction, domination, and even cruelty. Definitions of family reveal the social implications of the belief that families are centered on children and the need of patriarchs to control female sexuality. Notions about households are generally more concrete, and many households include people who are not family members and are not nuclear in nature. Many development initiatives have floundered because of the assumption that households distribute resources according to individual needs. Instead, household members use bargaining power to get their way, and women are generally in weaker bargaining positions than men. Linking men solely with production and women solely with reproduction ignores the realities of most women's lives, although the unpaid reproductive work women do influences their access to paid employment. In order to assure family stability and to find ways to provide social welfare, women's workload in the family must be reduced. Family life must not be hidden in a "private" sphere where injustices and violence are ignored. Unconscious biases against families of various types must be rooted out and overcome, and policy-makers must recognize that families evolve to meet changing needs. Finally, the notion of the nuclear family as the ideal family type must be challenged.     

Lone-parent families in cross-cultural perspectives: ethnic and immigration issues

"One-parent families represent about 10-20 percent of all families in Europe, North America, New Zealand and Australia. About 90 percent are headed by women, who have become heads of households mainly due to divorce, separation, and never-married status. The presentation will review existing research and data related to cross-cultural one-parent families. The topics covered include routes to lone parenthood, characteristics common among female-headed families, positive and negative aspects of this type of family, up-to-date statistics, and a discussion of children living in one-parent families. Implications for immigration and ethnicity issues will be included...as well as research implications and intervention strategies for the one-parent family."     

Sex Ratio and Family Structure in the Nonmetropolitan United States

The sex ratio hypothesis maintains that the ratio of marriageable men to marriageable women can have major implications for family formation and structure. Despite extensive research attention, the sex ratio hypothesis has yet to be tested on general nonmetropolitan populations. This study of nonmetropolitan counties in the United States found strong support for the sex ratio hypothesis. Counties with low sex ratios (shortage of men) had lower proportions of married couple households and a corresponding higher proportion of female-headed households. These low sex ratio counties also had fewer adults married, and a lower proportion of their children living in married couple households with a higher proportion of children living in female-headed households.     

Female Headed Households in Iran (1976–2006)

Here we address the issue of female-headed households in Iran in an effort to discover whether the incidences, causes, and consequences are similar to those seen elsewhere in both developed and developing countries. In the United States such households are not always found to have resulted from involuntary, relatively homogeneous causes, but there is a persistent finding of associated poverty. From Iranian census data including the past 40 years, we found a rather dramatic, albeit not extremely large, countercultural increase in female-headed households; however, such households neither resulted from common causes nor led necessarily to poverty. We consider these results in relation to their implications about changes in family and women's roles in this highly transitional society in which tradition and modernity seem to coexist and family changes emerge slowly and selectively.     

FEMALE-HEADED FAMILIES: EFFECTS ON CHILDREN AND CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS*

The social psychological research pertaining to female-headed families published between 1970–1980 is reviewed. The literature indicates that theoretically children do not need the presence of the same-sex/opposite-sex parents in the family in order to develop sex-role behavior. Children in female-headed families are likely to have good emotional adjustment, good self-esteem except when they are stigmatized, intellectual development comparable to others in the same socioeconomic status, and rates of juvenile delinquency comparable to others in the same socioeconomic status. In light of these findings, suggestions are made for counseling women who head families.     

Profiles of Housing Cost Burden in the United States

In this study, the ordered logistic regression model indicates that renters suffer a greater housing cost burden than homeowners and that the lower the income of the household, the larger the portion of income that is spent for housing. Further, the model also shows that the burden of high housing costs falls disproportionately on certain groups of American households. Compared to the reference group, two single-risk groups (Asian-American households and households with three or more children) and two dual-risk groups (female-headed households with three or more children and minority households with three or more children) tend to have a higher risk of excessive housing costs. Elderly households and three elderly-related groups (female-headed elderly households, minority elderly households, and female-headed minority elderly households), however, tend to have a lower risk of housing cost burden than other households. The housing cost burden of the reference group is comparable to the housing cost burden of each of the following groups: for single female-headed households; Black households; Hispanic households; and female-headed minority households. The policy implications of these findings are discussed in the paper.     

Dynamics of earnings inequality among female-headed households in the United States

The labor market in the United States has gone through a number of noticeable changes, one of which is a rise participation of women in the labor force. A number of studies have investigated the consequences of these changes on wage, income, or earnings inequality in a static framework. This study investigated the consequences of these changes on earnings inequality over time. The earnings inequality among male- and female-headed households is compared. I further considered the factors that might have influenced the earnings inequality among female-headed households. Short-term and long-term inequality was measured from 1978–1986. It was found that short-term inequalities generally have a rising trend and contain transitory components; long-term inequalities declined in the early years because of a smoothing of transitory components; and within-group inequalities are the principle determinant of overall inequality. Education, race, age, and marital status were considered as possible contributors to the overall inequality. Education and race were shown to be the most influential factor explaining inequality among female-headed households and explained a third of the observed inequality. Earnings stability profiles reveal the existence of permanent and chronic inequality.     

Expenditures on children by female-headed households

The 1982–84 Consumer Expenditure Survey data are used to analyze expenditures made by nonpoor female-headed households for child-related goods and services. These child costs are measured using Engel's (1895) food share equivalency methodology, previously used by Espenshade (1984) to analyze child-related expenditures in two-parent households. Results show that single, female-headed households on average spend about $112,000 to $142,000 in 1990 dollars to raise a single child to age 18. Findings are also compared with those of two other recently published studies of single-parent child cost estimates. Professor Douthitt's research interests include analysis of the effects of family composition on money and time expenditures. Professor Huh's current research interests include analysis of gender roles and family time use.     

Mate Availability,Family Formation,and Family Structure Among Black Americans in Nonmetropolitan Louisiana 1970–19801

Abstract This paper assesses the effects of the community sex ratio on black family formation and family structure in nonmetropolitan parishes in Louisiana. As predicted, the sex ratio is found to have strong positive effects on marriage prevalence for black women, the prevalence of husband and wife families for black families, and the percentage of black children residing in husband and wife families and strong negative effects on the nonmarital fertility ratio for black women. Thus, we conclude that the sex ratio hypothesis should be given greater prominence in discussions of changes in black family structure and that sex ratio effects should be taken into account when framing policies aimed at ameliorating social problems attendant to high relative incidence of nonmarital births and single-parent, female-headed families with young children (e.g., poverty). We also note that, while the literature overwhelmingly concentrates on black family structure in urban areas, changes in the black family are equally pronounced in nonmetropolitan areas suggesting that explanations emphasizing the dynamics of urban ghettos may be too narrow.     

Ethnicity,Families and Social Capital: Caring Relationships across Italian and Caribbean Transnational Families

Social capital theorists acknowledge that caring networks operating within and above all across households lie at the heart of families and communities. They also see these networks and family bonds as generally declining in contemporary society due to individualisation. However, there seems to be little empirical evidence documenting these processes in detail, particularly with regards to minority ethnic and transnational families. This article explicitly addresses reciprocal relationships in ethnic minority families, focusing on different forms of care circulating within transcultural and intergenerational family and kin networks. By doing so, this discussion reveals many nuances of family life and the processes by which cultural norms, values, attitudes and behaviour are transmitted, transformed and maintained across generations and geographical distance.     

The <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ownership Society</Emphasis> and Women: Exploring Female Householders’ Ability to Accumulate Assets

Wealth indicators have not been widely examined in studies of women’s economic well-being and little attention has been paid to assets within female-headed households, specifically. Using SIPP data this study examined factors associated with asset accumulation of female householders. Differences between households with and without children and with and without other adults present in the household were emphasized. Findings indicated the presence of children consistently reduced the likelihood of owning assets but had little impact on equity values when women owned assets. The effect of multiple adults within the household varied depending on the asset held.     

Families in the future: the pursuit of personal autonomy

There have been substantial changes in the demography of the family since the early 1970s in Australia. Age at 1st marriage has risen substantially. In 1986, 6.1% of heterosexual couples in Australia were living together. In 1 in 3 marriages today, 1 or both partners have been married before. The percentage of marriages ending in divorce based on annual data increased from 14% in 1971 to 35% in 1986. The birth rate has declined substantially since 1971. In 1986,, 77% of all households were family households, 4% were group households, and 19% were 1-person households. Over 1 in 3 Australian children being born today will spend some time in a 1-parent family before they reach majority. The important measure, however, may not be family structure but the extent of support, both economic and emotional, that the child receives from his or her parents. Similar arguments may be applied to the aged. A 1982 survey showed that among persons aged 15-64 years who had a parent living elsewhere, over 50% had contact with that parent at least once a week. The same survey showed that among aged people requiring help, they were 5 times more likely to receive that help from a family member than from a government agency or from a voluntary agency. A focus on how families function draws attention to the changes in the lives of married women. Labor force participation rates for married women have been steadily increasing for over 50 years. Even in couple families with a child under 5 years old, 40% of the women were in the labor force in 1986. The family changes described above can all be interpreted in terms of the movement to personal autonomy which has characterized the last 20 years. This is especially the case with the increase in age at marriage, the decline of teenage pregnancy, and the rise in the divorce rate. The trend for young couples to live together rather than marry can be seen as an experiment in the pursuit of personal autonomy. The author hypothesizes that people choosing to live together before marriage are seeking personal autonomy, and it is the conflict between personal autonomy and family life that leads ultimately to their higher break-up rates.     

THE FUN GOD: SPORTS,RECREATION, LEISURE,AND AMUSEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES

Twenty‐five Caribbean and Latin American nations were examined to determine the relationship between potential female headed families and other social indicators. Regression analysis reveals that women's labor market participation is associated with the proportion of families potentially headed by women. The share of girls in secondary school is also associated with the dependent variable. Social indicators of modernization and dependency were regressed on potential female‐headed households. Neither approach alone explains the formation of female‐headed families in the region.     

Poverty among long-term united states immigrants

In this paper we analyze the economic and social characteristics of impoverished long-term immigrants. We investigate in what ways this group differs from poor natives and what factors contribute towards the economic success or failure of long-term immigrants. We found that poor long-term immigrants are more likely than poor natives to live in central cities and to work full-time, and less likely to live in non-female-headed households. Long-term immigrants from refugee countries are over six times as likely ana immigrants from Mexico over three times as likely to be poor as long-term immigrants from Europe, even after considering family structure, education, and citizenship. Also, immigrants who live in single female-headed families are considerably more likely to be poor than those who live in married-couple families, and immigrants in extended families are less likely to be poor than those who are not. The welfare reform bill redefines eligibility criteria for immigrants with respect to participation in Food Stamps, SSI and AFDC. Because of the high risk of poverty among long-term immigrants (particularly refugees), their low rates of naturalization, and the predominance of extended families, it is likely that long-term immigrants will suffer economic setbacks as a result of welfare reform. We posit that this economic hardship is exacerbated by the fact that anti-poverty policies are not tailored to the circumstances of long-term immigrants, many of whom already work full-time     

The Family and Work in the Post-socialist Transition of Serbia: 1991–2006

For a long period of time, the family and the household have not been considered agents in the economic sphere. However, in contemporary theoretical and research practice we are witnessing a rehabilitation of this aspect of family activity. The importance of the broader social and economic impact of this activity of families and households is legitimated through the concepts of social capital and household strategies in the labor sphere. This paper presents the results of three successive representative empirical studies of households in Serbia between 1991 and 2006. The main goal of these studies was to observe the problems households and families are facing in the transition process. The specific profile of Serbia's transition path, determined by numerous societal disturbances, is emphasized. The relation between the work sphere and the family sphere is viewed through five forms of the working status and activities of household members. Research results show a remarkable proliferation of informal work activities, which enable the survival of households in the circumstances of high unemployment and low wages in the formal labor sector.     

What is in a family? Adolescent perceptions

The ways in which adolescents conceptualise families is not well understood. In this study perceptions of families by 232 adolescents were examined using vignettes describing groupings of people (e.g. married couple with children, two women and a child). Eighty per cent or more endorsed married and cohabiting families, lone‐parent households, and extended family members as families. Few differences were found according to their own family structure. Asian (Chinese) adolescents were less likely overall to endorse groupings as families. Love and affection were given as primary criteria for being a family. Overall, young people endorsed a diversity of family forms. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Gendering the Organization of Home‐based Work in Turkey: Classical versus Familial Patriarchy

This article examines the link between industrial homework and family dynamics in Turkey by asking how and why varied patterns emerge in the organization of industrial homework. I develop a framework for the analysis of gendered organization of industrial homework by comparing labour practices in extended family and nuclear family households. In extended family households, subcontracts are made between industrial enterprises and male family members. Women carry out piece‐rated work at home under the supervision of male family members and have very little contact with people outside their family. In nuclear family households, subcontracts are made between women homeworkers and industrial enterprises or middle persons. Women work at residential streets and neighbourhood homework stores, as well as at home. They have control over their income as well as their working hours. To explain the divergent practices of industrial homework, I show that enterprises incorporate distinct patterns of patriarchy into the subcontracting arrangements through gendered organization of industrial homework.     

The Effect of Parental Presence, Parents’ Education, and Household Headship on Adolescents’ Schooling and Work in Latin America

We investigate how the presence and education of parents affect adolescents’ school attendance, work participation, and school attainment in Brazil, Ecuador, Nicaragua and Panama. Across the four countries, approximately 20% of adolescents live in single-mother families and 4% in single-father families. Adolescents who live in single-mother families have significantly lower school attendance and attainment than adolescents who live with both parents. However, the effects of living in a single-mother family are small relative to the effects of parents’ education. Adolescents who live in single-mother families are not more likely to work than adolescents in two-parent families. Finally, targeting benefits to children in single-mother families would reach more children at risk of poor school outcomes than targeting children in female-headed households.Mary Arends-Kuenning, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 408 Mumford Hall, MC-710, 1301 W. Gregory, Urbana, IL 61801; e-mail: marends@uiuc.edu.Suzanne Duryea, Inter-American Development Bank, 1300 New York Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC 20577, USA; e-mail: suzanned@iadb.org.