Long-term immigration to the United States: new approaches to measurement

"The United Nations has recommended the measurement of types of international migration using demographic criteria, including length of stay and purpose of travel. Information systems at the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) have the potential to provide a basis for documenting these demographic characteristics, in particular, length of stay of temporary migrants to the United States. This article analyzes these characteristics of selected categories of nonimmigrant aliens. The results of the analysis are used to produce series of estimates of alien immigration that conform more closely to the U.N. recommended definitions and better represent demographic concepts of long-term immigration. A strategy for measuring emigration of aliens from the United States using INS information systems is also described."     

Estimating the immigration multiplier: an analysis of recent Korean and Filipino immigration to the United States

"This article explores the effect of 'chaining' through the petitioning of relatives on the demand for future immigrant visas [to the United States]. The data for the study come from a 1986 survey of 3,911 respondents from the Philippines and the Republic of Korea who were interviewed in Manila and Seoul just after they had received their U.S. immigrant visas. Analyses are conducted to derive different types of multipliers that may be used in estimating the effects of chain migration.... The empirical results for the Philippines and Korea indicate that the potential for future immigration through the family reunification entitlements of the immigration law is lower than has previously been suggested." This is a revised version of a paper originally presented at the 1987 Annual Meeting of the Population Association of America (see Population Index, Vol. 53, No. 3, Fall 1987, p. 385).     

Methods of analysis of illegal immigration into the United States

The inadequacy of existing data on illegal immigration to the United States is described. The attempts that have been made by various government agencies and individual researchers to measure the extent and employment impact of illegal immigrants are then reviewed.     

Recent trends in Hispanic immigration to the United States

Recent patterns of Hispanic immigration to the United States are examined using data from the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service. "From 1960 to 1978 Hispanic immigration increased significantly, reflecting the general acceleration in total immigration to the United States. Demographic trends reveal that Hispanic immigrants are increasingly working-age women. Their occupation composition is primarily blue collar, with operatives emerging as the predominant job category during the 1970s." The authors note that these immigrants settle primarily in a small number of urban centers of Hispanic population and culture in the United States, and thus the effects of immigration will be concentrated on the low-skill segment of particular urban labor markets that already contain large numbers of Hispanic workers.     

Temporal and spatial patterns of geographically indirect immigration to the United States

"This article examines the little-studied phenomenon of indirect geographic migration to the United States, or the movement of persons whose country of last permanent residence differed from their country of birth. Over 8 million records of legal immigrants to the United States were studied for the period 1972-1987. Geographically indirect migration is shown to be important, amounting to as many as 86,136 persons during a single year. Primarily because of the dislocations of Southeast Asian refugees from their homelands and their subsequent admittance to the United States, indirect immigration increased during the 1980s. Moreover, again somewhat due to refugees, the patterns of geographically indirect movement changed during recent years. Political conditions in countries of birth appear to be important in explaining these patterns, as well as the age and skills of the indirect migrants themselves."     

Cross sectional analysis of indirect professional immigration to the United States, 1964-1974

This paper concerns legal immigration to the United States, with a focus on new admissions and adjustments of status. The authors develop a model of indirect professional immigration through adjustments of migrant status for the period 1964-1974 to show how changes in migration legislation have a significant effect. (SUMMARY IN FRE AND SPA)     

The process of exempt immediate relative immigration to the United States

"To examine the chain migration issue [in the United States], this article develops and analyzes a new data base that links information on a sample of exempt immediate relative immigrants in Fiscal Year 1985 with information on the characteristics of their petitioners or sponsors. The analysis generally does not indicate that an explosive increase in future chain migration of exempt immediate relative immigrants is likely in the next ten years." Exempt immediate relative immigrants are defined as those who are exempt from numerical limitations because of their relationship with a U.S. citizen. Data are from the U.S. General Accounting Office.     

Dual chain migration: post-1965 Filipino immigration to the United States

In analyzing Filipino migration to the United States since 1965, the authors identify two distinct chains of immigrants. One derives from the Filipinos who entered the country prior to 1965; the other comes from the flow of highly trained professionals who immigrated during the late 1960s and early 1970s. "To establish the historical basis for the two patterns of immigration that unfolded in the post-1965 period, the article begins with a brief examination of Filipino immigration to the United States. An analysis of the modes of entry used in both chains follows this overview. The study concludes with a discussion of the degree of convergence in these two chains and the consequences of each for contemporary Filipino-American community development." Data are from published U.S. census material and from Immigration and Naturalization Service reports and tapes dating from 1972 to 1985.     

One century of foreign immigration to the United States: 1880-1979

Due to declining fertility rates and increased numbers of immigrants, legal foreign immigration now comprises 1/4 of the US's annual population growth. This article uses 1900-1979 Immigration and Naturalization Service data on immigrants' intended destination to examine immigration policy and its effect on immigrants and the American people. From the US's beginnings to the 1880s, immigrants came mainly from Great Britain, Germany, and other Northern and Western European countries, in the 1890s; over 70% of immigrants came from Italy, Austria, Hungary, Russia, and Germany. Immigration had peaked at over 1 million persons a year at the outbreak of World War I, then declined sharply, and rose again greatly during the first 2 decades of the 20th Century. The first significant legislation to restrict ethnic groups was in the early 1880s with the Chinese Exclusion Act; In 1924, Congress passed the 2nd Immigration and Naturalization Act which used the 1890 census to set quotas for ethnic groups, and later used the 1920 census to fix quotas in the national origins system; both pieces of legislation favored Northern and Western Europeans. Immigration declined drastically during the 1930s and early 1940s, but the Displaced Persons Act, the War Brides Act, and 1950s legislation allowed more Asian refugees and some other ethnic groups to enter the country. The nationality origins quotas were eliminated in 1965, and were followed by dramatic changes in immigration character as persons from formerly low quota nations flooded into the US. 1976 and 1978 legislation made immigration still more equitable, and the Refugee Act of 1980 allowed admittance of 50,000 refugees with no regard for geographic or ideological biases. A preference system, in operation since 1924, has favored relatives of citizens and immigrants with certain skills. Females presently outnumber male immigrants, average immigrant age is 26.2 years, and over 1/2 of the immigrants since 1950 have been housewives, children, or others with no occupation. In the 1970s, 1 in 10 immigrants was a professional or technical worker, probably from Asia. In 1900, most immigrants headed for mainly northern, industrialized cities, especially New York. In recent years, too destinations have included New York, California, Washington, Texas, and Florida. Throughout the century, 3/5 immigrants went to only 5 states, so many states have received very few immigrants since 1900. Due to the amount spent on receiving refugees, and economic and job problems, many Americans think immigration should be greatly limited. Today's 1 million legal and illegal immigrants will continue to change the composition of the American population, as the long established Northern and Western European population declines.     

The immigration of Asian professionals to the United States: 1988-1990

"This article examines recent flows of Asian professionals to the United States based on the Immigration and Naturalization Service data for the fiscal years 1988-1990. Three specific dimensions of the Asian migration stream were investigated, namely, size, composition and mode of entry. The results show that Asians emerge as a dominant group in the immigration of all professionals. An examination of mode of entry indicates an existing demand for foreign professionals of certain occupational backgrounds in the U.S. labor market.... The argument that the outflow of the highly trained Asians is simply a matter of migration and education is not fully supported by the data."     

Tracking ecstasy trends in the United States with data from three national drug surveillance systems

Anecdotal reports have suggested that the use of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or "ecstasy") is a prodigious problem across the United States. Unfortunately, no longitudinal evidence exists to support this contention. In the current study, data from the Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN), Monitoring the Future (MTF), and National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) are used to explore ecstasy use trends in the United States during the 1990s. While the use of ecstasy has increased over time, its prevalence is significantly less than other drugs of abuse. These findings suggest that anecdotal reports of an ecstasy epidemic is premature and that a less frenzied approach to ecstasy control and education may be warranted.     

The representation of North Korean national image in national newspapers in the United States

This study examines how two major U.S. newspapers (The New York Times and The Washington Post) represented North Korea's national image during the two-year period (from 2001 to 2002). According to the findings, The New York Times and Washington Post showed a similar trend in their portrayal of North Korea. An anti-North Korea frame dominated the news coverage of North Korea in both newspapers. Furthermore, this study reveals that most news articles related to North Korea were classified into negative images instead of positive images.     

Labor immigration and capital flows: long-term Australian,Canadian and United States experience

"Evidence on labor immigration and capital inflows to three high labor-immigration economies (Australia, Canada, the United States) is examined over periods ranging from 1820-1870 through to 1991. Data show a close association between capital flows and immigration, although causality implications are ambiguous. For the United States, the relation between factor flows is more complex than for the other countries, but flows to the United States have influenced those to smaller economies. All three nations have been subjected to common immigrant push factors through to 1930-1950 but, since World War II, linkages between factor flows have altered. Post-World War II U.S. immigration restrictions have become more important as a global determinant of labor flows, with factor flow policymaking becoming increasingly internationally interdependent."     

The "albatross" of immigration reform: temporary worker policy in the United States

The author examines the history of U.S. labor and immigration policies, paying particular attention to the evolution of the temporary worker policy. Complications in the immigration reform process caused by efforts to admit more temporary workers are discussed. The position of the Reagan administration, Senate and House consideration of immigration and temporary worker bills, and the political controversies surrounding this issue are reviewed. The author points out that it was not until the major temporary worker proposals were finally removed from the Simpson-Rodino Act that passage of legislation was achieved, and he anticipates that efforts will eventually be made to revive temporary worker policy and thereby rekindle the debate     

Household wealth and the measurement of economic well-being in the United States

We analyze the level and distribution of economic well-being in the United States during the 1980s and 1990s based on the standard measure of money income and a measure in which income from wealth is calculated as the sum of lifetime annuity from nonhome wealth and imputed rental-equivalent for owner-occupied homes. Over the 1982–2000 period, median well-being increases faster when these adjustments are made than when standard money income is used. This adjustment also widens the income gap between African-Americans and whites but increases the relative well-being of the elderly. Adding imputed rent and annuities from household wealth to household income considerably increases measured inequality and the share of income from wealth in inequality. However, both measures show about the same rise in inequality over the period. We also find an increasing share of wage and salary income in our expanded definition of income among the richest 1% over the period but do not find that the “working rich” have largely replaced rentiers at the top of the economic ladder.      

Ethics,national sovereignty and the control of immigration

"This paper examines the debate as to whether migration is a basic human right or if the claims of outsiders are superseded by the principle of national sovereignty--the moral obligation of states to do the best for their own citizens. In evaluating migration and refugees it focuses on issues of open borders, migration selectivity, the capacity of sovereign states to control entry, the claims of refugees, the relationship between sovereignty and justifiable intervention, and the role of public opinion and morals throughout migration policies."     

Post-war immigration in the United States and the state of Minnesota: the process of entering an all-American community

The author focuses on characteristics of Polish immigrants in Minnesota in the years since World War II. Particular attention is given to the immigrants' adaptation to the American way of life and to democratic institutions after being accustomed to centralized power in a socialist system. "This article is based on participant observation, publications concerning immigration to the United States, and unstructured interviews with newcomers from Poland and other Eastern European countries." Distinctions are made among the characteristics of Polish-Americans, pre-World War II immigrants, war immigrants, and those who have come during the last 20 years, including groups that the author identifies as the "calculated-decision" immigrants, the post-Solidarity immigrants, and the "adjusted visitor" immigrants. Consideration is given to the demographic characteristics, legal status, education and employment, and territorial mobility of 35 Poles living in Minnesota who were interviewed by the author. (SUMMARY IN FRE AND SPA)     

The making of national identity among older Estonians in the United States

The purpose of this study was to investigate the development of national identity throughout adulthood among older Estonians in the United States. The participants of the study arrived in the United States as World War II refugees, fleeing the Soviet occupation of their homeland. The data were collected using in-depth semistructured interviews, participant observations, and publications of the Estonian community. The interview sample consisted of 30 Estonians who were 75–92 years old. Data analysis was guided by the grounded theory approach. The study revealed that for Estonian refugees of the participants' generation, national identity has been a central aspect of their personal and social identities throughout their lives. However, when the participants became refugees, the expressions of national identity intensified and acquired a mission-like character. Now in old age, their national identity provides them with an important source of existential meaning and a basis for social connections.