Social effects of migration in receiving countries

This paper examines the impact of post-1945 migration into Western, Middle, and Northern Europe from Southern Europe, Turkey, and Northern Africa, and migration to the traditional immigration countries by Asian and Latin American immigrants, on the social structures of receiving countries. Between 1955 and 1974, 1) traditional migration to the US and Australia became less important for European countries while traditional receiving countries accepted many immigrants from developing countries; and 2) rapid economic revival in Western and Northern Europe caused a considerable labor shortage which was filled by migrant workers especially from Southern Europe, Turkey, and Northern Africa, who stayed only until they reached their economic goals. Since 1974, job vacancies have declined and unemployment has soared. This employment crisis caused some migrants 1) to return to their countries of origin, 2) to bring the rest of their families to the receiving country, or 3) to lengthen their stay considerably. The number of refugees has also significantly increased since the mid-970s, as has the number of illegal migrants. After the mid-1970s, Europe began to experience integration problems. The different aspects of the impact of migration on social structures include 1) improvement of the housing situation for foreigners, 2) teaching migrants the language of the receiving country, 3) solving the unemployment problem of unskilled migrants, 4) improvement of educational and vocational qualifications of 2nd generation migrants, 5) development of programs to help unemployed wives of migrants to learn the language and meet indigenous women, 6) encouraging migrants to maintain their cultural identity and assisting them with reintegration if they return to their original country, 7) coping with the problems of refugees, and 8) solving the problems of illegal migration. Almost all receiving countries now severely restrict further immigration. [Those policies should result in improved development of aid policies towards sending countries. Immigration from other countries to those of the European Economic community should be limited to that for humanitarian reasons.     

Uncovering Health and Wellness Needs of Recently Resettled Karen Refugees from Burma

Often, newly resettled refugees continue to face obstacles to acculturation long after initial resettlement. Findings from interviews with Karen refugees from Burma suggest that recently resettled refugees experience major obstacles in locating and accessing employment and health care due to language and transportation barriers. Interviewees expressed a need for assistance in learning English and help with transportation, job skills, and financial planning. Results of this needs assessment indicate that many of the basic needs of refugees are not being met following the initial relocation period, and significant efforts are needed to achieve social justice for this vulnerable population.     

Return Migration and the Problem of Reintegration

This article proposes a programme approach for achieving the social and economic reintegration of all categories of return migrants. As former exiles who have returned to their country of origin are no longer refugees, some government agencies need to organize the reception of, and provide assistance to, returnees. But without long-term planning, ad hoc committees are unable to be effective facilitators of the reintegration process. The article suggests a list of major elements necessary for an effective reintegration programme, and argues that governments should focus on the institutional mechanism of programme management, including the creation of a responsible agency or agencies. The management structure should be based in the National Planning Ministry of government. Establishment of an effective mechanism would be likely to inspire donor confidence; and 'homecoming' would no longer be a nightmare for potential returnees trying to reintegrate.     

优化财政教育支出结构建设人力资源强国

持续稳步增加公共财政教育支出，可以有效促进就业，进而在保持我国经济社会稳定前提下提高城镇化水平，也有利于促进我国向第三产业为主的经济结构方向发展和转变。应优先基础教育投入，提升劳动力基本素质，解决长期就业问题；加大职业教育投入，增强劳动力基本技能，促进短期就业效应；持续高等教育投入，提升科技水平，为经济和社会发展提供高素质人才。     

The place of the natural parents in a foster care programme

The provision of social welfare services by the voluntary sector is largely dependent on government funding. This paper highlights some of the inadequacies of this funding procedure particularly as it affects the quality and conditions of work in the voluntary sector.

There is a place for the employment of an experienced professional as consultant to voluntary agencies for the provision of support and supervision of less experienced workers. Funding for the voluntary sector should provide for this.     

Employment of Unwed Mothers: The Role of Government and Social Support

This paper assesses which types of government and social support predict employment among unwed mothers the year after childbirth. We performed logistic regression analysis on a nationally-representative, mother-only subset of the Fragile Families public-use baseline and 1-year follow-up data. Unwed mothers were more likely to be employed if they received WIC, employment agency assistance, or instrumental social support. They were less likely to be employed if they received TANF, food stamps, housing subsidies, SSI, public housing, or cohabited with a partner. Targeted nutrition programs, employment agencies, and instrumental social support seemed to facilitate employment. Other social programs and cohabiting either served as disincentives to work or gave unwed mothers the option to remain home, depending on the perspective taken.This paper used data from The Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study funded by a grant from NICHD (#R01HD36916) and a consortium of private foundations. We thank the anonymous reviewers and the editor for comments on earlier drafts of this paper.     

Employment after spinal cord injury: the impact of government policies in Canada

The British Columbia Paraplegic Association (BCPA) sought a research partnership to evaluate where its activities should be focused. A survey of members with disabilities of the BCPA included questions on employment and identified three priorities related to employment. These were the need for assistance in finding appropriate work, the impact of policies of government and insurance agencies, and attitudes of employers. This paper examines the social and political environment related to employment following spinal cord injury in British Columbia, Canada. There is no coherent set of goals underlying government employment and income programs in Canada. Incremental development of particular employment and income programs during the 20th century led to a patchwork of policies and programs, which deal with people differently according to the cause of their disability. Federal and provincial governments have attempted to educate employers and reduce barriers to employment of those with disabilities by focusing on anti-discrimination legislation and individual rights (e.g. the Employment Equity Act and the Canadian Human Rights Act). However, people with disabilities face non-accommodating environments, inadequate income support, lack of opportunities and little political influence which stem from an unfair distribution of societal resources, not from discrimination. Joint efforts of the BCPA and other disability organizations are likely to have the most impact on legislative changes.     

Providing Employment Assistance to Students: The Role of Social Work Education

Abstract

This paper reports the results of a national survey of 130 graduate and undergraduate social work programs that was designed to learn what schools are doing to help students locate and secure employment after graduation. Less than half (43%) of the responding schools indicated that they have a formal program of employment assistance services. Size of student enrollment and size of faculty were the only factors that differentiated schools that offer employment assistance services from those that do not. The study's implications for social work education are discussed, and an employment assistance program model is presented.     

The Employment Experience of Refugees in the Netherlands1

This study focuses on the economically disadvantaged position of refugees. We use survey data of refugees from Somalia, Iran, Afghanistan, Iraq, and the former Yugoslavia in the Netherlands, to analyze refugees’ odds of employment and their occupational status. In line with human capital and social capital theory, we find that host country specific education, work experience, language proficiency, and contacts with natives are positively related to the chances of employment and occupational status. The study shows that health problems, integration courses, and the time spent in refugee reception centers form important additional explanations of the economic integration of refugees.     

Job Interview Social Skills Training for Asian-American Immigrants

Abstract

A social skills training program was designed to teach former Asian refugees the values and practices of Western culture, and to utilize this knowledge in seeking higher level employment. In a repeated measures multiple baseline design, comparison of pre-and post-performance measures of social interview skills found improvement in participants' performance. Social validity measures indicated self-improvement in several dimensions including understanding of Western social customs, personal confidence, and securing better employment. The implications of using these types of educational and social skills programs are discussed.     

Government and voluntary agency relationships

The concept of "voluntary agency" is being radically but almost imperceptibly revised under the press of events in the world of social welfare organization and finance. The term now embraces traditional nonprofit social agencies, proprietary agencies offering similar services often financed by the public sector, social programs financed by industry for its employees, and the family as a primary service provider. This evolution demands a major reconsideration of the new relationship between government and the voluntary agency.     

DO REEMPLOYMENT PROGRAMS FOR THE UNEMPLOYED WORK FOR YOUTH? EVIDENCE FROM THE GREAT RECESSION IN THE UNITED STATES

We present experimental evidence on the effects of four U.S. reemployment programs for youth unemployment insurance (UI) recipients during the Great Recession. The three programs that emphasized monitoring and service referrals reduced UI receipt but had minimal effects on employment and earnings; these programs mainly induced the early exit of participants. The fourth program, which combined mandatory job counseling with monitoring, caused the largest reductions in UI receipt and clearly increased employment and earnings. Both early participant exits and effective job counseling underlie these impacts. We conclude that policymakers should require job counseling for youth UI recipients during recessions. (JEL J0, J6, H4)     

Effects of migration on family structure

This paper examines the situation and problems of migration on family structure, with emphasis on family reunification. The study is based on conditions and practices in Western Europe and Mediterranean countries relating to temporary labor migration. Most migrant workers have no intention of settling permanently and return to their country within a few years. The International Labour Office estimated in 1974 that at least 1/2 the migrant workers in Western Europe live without their families. Generally, migrants send for their families only when they are employed, earning adequate wages, and have adequate housing. Some reasons why migrants live apart from their families include 1) the receiving country discourages family immigration because it does not coincide with the economic necessities of migration policy and 2) some sending countries discourage it to ensure that the migrant worker returns to his own country. The main danger arising from family separation is that it frequently leads to the break up of the family. The leading European authorities recognize as a fundamental right the freedom of a migrant worker and his family to lead a normal family life in the receiving country. The author outlines the conditions for admission for residence and employment of migrant spouses and children for the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Belgium, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, Austria, Luxembourg, and the United Kingdom. All countries require that the head be in regular employment for some time and be able to provide his family with suitable housing. Other problems concerning the arrival of migrant spouses and children include 1) acquiring employment and social information and counseling, 2) education of children, 3) obtaining vocational training and adaptation and 4) achieving entitlement to social security benefits. The effects of migration in the family context in sending countries include 1) providing activities for migrants to maintain cultural links with their countries of origin and 2) acquiring the nationality of the receiving countries. Countries should facilitate the admission to employment of migrant spouses and children, by maintaining provisions for the reuniting of families and imposing no limits on admission to residence; and 2) by overcome obstacles to admission to employment, by observing existing recommendations. In conclusion, governments should give family cohesion 1st priority, regardless of regulations.     

Challenges to Employment in Newly Emerging African Communities in Australia: A Review of the Literature

Abstract

Newly emerging African communities (NEAC) in Australia face challenges in accessing employment, with consequences for both the immigrant and Australian host communities. This article presents a review of the literature on challenges to employment for NEAC in Australia. It gathers together, synthesises, and analyses previously fragmented evidence that should be used to inform social policy change and social program improvement. It focuses on African refugees and immigrants from the Horn of Africa region (Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan) who have settled in Australia in the past 10 years. The review documents the challenges to employment for this group and highlights policy and practice implications including: streamlining the qualification recognition process; introducing culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) specialised job networks; resisting anti-NEAC sentiments, challenging stereotypes, and promoting diversity; introducing incentives to undertake volunteer work; revitalising existing English as a second language pedagogy; empowering CALD-specialised counselling services; and establishing CALD-specialised research and advocacy entities.     

Resources for coping with economic distress: The situation of unemployed Southeast Asian refugees

This paper focuses on identifying resources and demographic variables that might influence the amount of economic distress experienced by unemployed Southeast Asian refugees. Voydanoff conceptualized economic distress as containing objective (employment instability and economic deprivation) and subjective (employment uncertainty and economic strain) dimensions. As measured in this study, unemployed refugees are not experiencing extensive economic distress except in the area of employment uncertainty. Older subjects evidence higher economic distress except on the dimension of economic strain. Economic distress is relatively low among refugees who have access to financial sources and who have family to provide social support, but human capital variables (English fluency, educational level, and Canadian job training) are not significantly related to the level of economic distress. These findings emphasize the importance of family reunification programs.Data for this study were collected for the longitudinal research project, Settlement of Indochinese Refugees in Canada: Psychological, Social, Employment and Consumer Aspects, supported by grants from Canada Health and Welfare NHRDP, Secretary of State's Multiculturalism Directorate, United Way and Woodward Foundation of Vancouver. Principal investigators for the project are Morton Beiser, M.D., Psychiatry; Phyllis J. Johnson, Ph.D., Family and Nutritional Sciences; and Richard Nann, Ph.D., Social Work; all at the University of British Columbia.We thank our research assistants Pauline Au, Susan Johnston, Esther Kwong, and Bich Pham for their contributions to the research. Klaus Schroeder provided statistical assistance.Phyllis J. Johnson received her Ph.D. from The Ohio State University. Her research interests include women and work, financial practices of different ethnic groups, and employment/unemployment. She may be contacted at the University of British Columbia, School of Family and Nutritional Sciences, 2205 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T1W5.     

Attitudes to Employment of Professionally Qualified Refugees in the United Kingdom

This paper explores the attitudes to work and experiences seeking employment of professionally qualified refugees enrolled on a course to enhance their employability skills in Leeds, United Kingdom (UK). We analyse the results within the framework of conceptual models describing the transition of refugees into employment (which are essentially linear) and those that categorize refugees according to their resettlement styles based on their social features and the host society's response. Our data reinforce that these people are (initially at least) highly motivated to work, strongly identify with their profession and suffer considerable loss of self‐esteem as they are unable to secure appropriate employment. Attitudes to securing employment were often related to their length of time in the UK. Recent arrivals were more positive about returning to their profession, even if this meant retraining, developing skills and time spent in alternative employment. Many of those here for longer were resigned to retraining, and the worst cases felt despair and feelings of betrayal. Our work showed that many had poor job search strategies and a lack of knowledge of the culture and norms of their chosen profession. We argue that the generic support of statutory employment services or the voluntary sector is inappropriate and that there is a role for professional bodies to be more active in their engagement with these groups of people. The results suggest that conceptual models need to be more nuanced to capture the experiences of these refugees: attitudes to work can cycle from optimism to disillusionment, so a linear model will not capture the full complexity, and we also found evidence of shifting among categories of resettlement styles.     

The Economic Adjustment of Recently Arrived Bosnian,Afghan and Iraqi Refugees in Sydney,Australia1

Research on the early settlement experience of refugees from Bosnia, Iraq and Afghanistan is absent, both in Australia and overseas. The current study, based on questionnaire results and the application of SPSS results, explores the impact that pre‐migration and post‐arrival experiences have on the initial post‐arrival economic adjustment in Sydney, Australia of recently arrived refugees from these three countries. Guided by a summary of previous findings and surveyed results of key service providers in Sydney, two propositions based on pre‐migration and post‐migration background variables have been developed and tested with mixed results. As expected, there was a significant relationship between English language competency and the likelihood of being gainfully employed. However, there was, for example, no significant association between current employment status and the time spent in detention camp or the extent of negative exit conditions experienced, and there were no significant differences in employment outcomes for those with or without qualifications. This study concludes with a number of recommendations, in particular, the need for early intervention with adequate English language tuition, employment skills training and career counseling which could greatly assist humanitarian entrants in finding employment and reducing welfare dependence.     

Penalties and payoffs: The short-term economic consequences of human capital acquisition for resettled refugees in the United States

The relationship between refugee investments in human capital and short-run economic outcomes may influence the extent to which refugees invest in human capital that is associated with positive future economic mobility. Using data from the Annual Survey of Refugees from 2016 and 2017 we assess the relationship between recent investments in human capital and hourly wages for employed refugees in the United States. Results suggest that recent job training has a positive effect on hourly wages. In contrast, enrollment in English classes and educational programmes have no short-term positive effects on hourly wages. When combined with the pressure resettled refugees experience to find employment quickly, these results suggest that the lack of short-term wage benefits from English language or educational courses may dissuade refugees from sufficiently investing in the amount of English language or education necessary to promote positive long-term economic mobility.     

Cultural integration through shared learning among resettled Bhutanese women

ABSTRACT

The multidimensional needs of recently resettled refugees have been well documented and range from elevated rates of mental illness and health care challenges to difficulties accessing resources due to language and literacy barriers. These factors are largely responsible for the challenges resettled refugees face in acquiring and maintaining stable employment. It is possible that achieving financial stability through steady employment and purposeful money management may alleviate some stressors associated with the resettlement process, though research in this area that is specific to refugees is in its infancy. What is clear, however, is that a traditional approach to mental health treatment (i.e., therapy in a traditional office setting) may lack effectiveness because of the lack of attention to extraneous stressors such as poverty, transportation, and language and literacy challenges that impact resettled refugees. The purpose of this study was to qualitatively assess the impact of a group-based financial education course and social enterprise on the self-reported mental health (i.e., post-traumatic stress symptoms, depression, anxiety, and somatization) of Bhutanese refugee women resettled in the United States. The study also sought to evaluate the acceptability and overall satisfaction with various components of the intervention. This qualitative study was a follow-up to a larger quantitative study that included 65 Bhutanese women who were resettled to the southwestern United States by a large resettlement agency. The results of this study offer insights into the lived experiences of Bhutanese refugees in the United States, particularly related to cultural integration bolstered by group-based education and shared learning opportunities.     

Talking about Integration: The Voices of Syrian Refugees Taking Part in Introduction Programmes for Integration into Swedish Society

The significant increase in the number of refugees entering the European Union and the low employment rates among them remain pressing issues across Europe. While previous research has mainly focused on refugee integration prospects from the policymakers’ point of view, we shift the analytical focus to how refugees perceive the introduction programme experience, examining the case of Syrian refugees to Sweden. Drawing upon semi‐structured interviews with Syrian refugees, our results suggest that the quality of language training, the complexity of the validation process for educational qualifications and the lengthy administrative procedures are perceived as important barriers hindering the access of refugees to the Swedish labour market. These barriers are differently perceived, especially by those with differing levels of education. This highlights the utility of an intersectional approach, and the continued need to explore the diversity of migrant experiences when assessing integration policies and programmes.