The responsibility of public welfare in family planning

The primary objective of the paper is the implementation of family planning programs in and by the public sector. Providing health service is the category that family planning falls into within public welfare. Only 700,000 patients are now receiving family planning services from all public and private agencies combined. This is only 13% of the target population. All too many policy statments have been made with little done to implement them. The estimation is that in 1966 and 1967 HEW spent about three million dollars on family planning. Public programs have progressed farther through Office of Economic Opportunity than through HEW. Religious sources are the strongest opposition to welfare involvement in family planning. Social work as a profession has a role in family planning to the extent that it considers its role helping people and enhancing family functioning.     

Family planning for the home,working wives and mothers

The Indian family planning program is discussed in relation to the home, working wives, and mothers. The major objectives of the program are to learn the reasons for the rapid growth of population, to discover suitable contraceptive techniques, advise, and reduce the birthrate to a level consonant with India's economic well being. Efforts to reach the home are made more difficult by geographic remoteness of some regions, sociological barriers, and the experience of infant mortality. Emphasis must be put on the fact that the fewer the children, the more hopeful the outlook for health and economic security. The trend today is for the middle classes to have fewer children than members of the lower classes. This situation should be reversed if India is to prosper. The hazzards to health of repeated childbirth are especially great to the working wife. Every large-scale industry should begin family planning clinics. By limiting family size, working wives can increase productivity and raise healthier and happier children; middle class wives will be able to respond to their desire to serve their country. Attitudes of working wives toward family planning is increasingly favorable. The most common deterrent to family planning use is fear of losing their children through death. Members of some communities also feel the need to increase the population of their community.     

Population education: a new strategy for India

Hamstrung by excessive population growth which has absorbed economic gains and faced with the prospect of even greater population gains due to the fact that 45% of her people are under 15 years of age, India must take bold steps to change fertility patterns. The best way of achieving this is to adopt a strong program of population education to convince young people to have small families out of a concern for the threat to the quality of life posed by excessive population. The objectives of population education, as defined by the National Seminar of Population Education in 1969, "should be to enable the students to understand that family size is controllable, that population limitation can facilitate the development of a higher quality of life in the nation and that a small family size can contribute materially to the quality of living for the individual family." The improvement in the health and welfare of individual family members was also emphasized. 3 major elements of population education are 1) determinants of population growth; 2) demography; and 3) consequences of population growth. 2 other aspects, generally called "sex education," can be added: human reproduction and family planning policies and programs. Inclusion of the latter items is highly controversial. Some maintain that the passions aroused by sex education can destroy the entire education program before it has a chance. Before launching an extensive program, the author recommends studying the social norms and constraints of the community, ensuring that the program is in competent hands, and instituting and evaluating pilot programs.     

Adolescent sexuality and premature parenthood: role of the Black church in prevention

The issues of sexuality and premature parenthood with the background of the Black experience in the United States are discussed. According to a 1986 study, 40% of US girls get pregnant at least once before the age of 20. In 1981, 45% of teenage pregnancies were terminated, and in 1982, 46% of girls 14-19 years old had had sexual intercourse. The gap between Black and White adolescent women regarding sexual intercourse has essentially disappeared, indicating that the underlying causes of teenage pregnancy are social not racial. The costs of adolescent childbearing are huge: in 1985 the public cost was at least 16.65 million dollars. In response to this crisis, many states have been searching for effective solutions enlisting clinics, schools, and social service agencies. The Black church has been a central institution within the Black community, in the forefront of many social changes with the ability to mobilize congregations and the community. Therefore, the cooperation of social service agencies, community groups, and the religious community could be fruitful in preventing adolescent pregnancies and childbearing. Such a venture would first require understanding the processes of adolescent development, self-esteem, socialization, relationship building, gender differences in physical and psychological changes, and moral development. A 1986 Gallup poll showed that 74% of 13-15 year old youth said that religion was one of the most important influences in their lives, indicating that they would be perceptive to moral reasoning. However, the fear of genocide was significant among the Black population (39%) when birth control and family planning programs were mentioned. This had to do with their brutal treatment in the past and coercive sterilization proposals to reduce welfare rolls. To overcome such fears and still prevent adolescent pregnancy, the Black church should organize workshops for parents and adolescents about sexual development, birth control, and the consequences of sexual activity with a view to postponing sexual activity and parenthood.     

A qualitative exploration of reentry service needs: The case of fathers returning from prison

The challenge of community and family reentry after a parent's release from prison remains an under‐addressed area of collateral damage stemming from high rates of U.S. incarceration. Many fathers released from prison return to living with family, and later attribute family connections and parent–child contact as key factors in their postrelease success. However, reentry planning is hampered by a dearth of research on family‐focused reentry services, and consequently, often omits attention to resuming family and parenting roles. To address this gap, we conducted 38 semi‐structured interviews with 19 previously incarcerated fathers, 9 co‐parenting mothers, and 10 relatives to explore service needs of fathers during reentry. Findings suggest programs not only should be multimodal, emphasizing family connections complemented by socioeconomic, self‐care, and social support services, but also should be accessible and relatable, offered within the community, and engaging for fathers and family members. Findings reinforce the importance of self‐determination and human agency while underscoring the multiple challenges fathers face upon reentry. By including the voices of those most affected by incarceration, this study advances knowledge to shape reentry programs and policies, contributes to efforts addressing criminal justice inequities, and promotes well‐being among formerly incarcerated parents and their families.     

Patterns of program development in family planning

The author urges the contribution of the field of social work to the development of family planning services. She believes that the new legislation will make it clear that Congress wants family planning services to be developed and wants Federal funds used to help with this development. Social services to pregnant women may well be the best source of highlighting the potential significance of family planning services as a vehicle for social work intervention. This intervention must involve participation in the planning of programs from the earliest possible stage to include the total design of the service. Constant attention to the social problems which interfere with effective use of family planning services, and the indications for social service intervention is needed. Ideally, family planning services should be a part of the maternal and child health programs.     

Social work practice toward enhancing competence in family planning

Competence in family planning possessing the ability to limit conception so that children are produced by choice. More attention must be directed toward family planning by social workers because of its importance in family welfare. They should help clients know that family planning might help in preventing family problems and promoting family health. The workers should determine whether their clients use or have ever used family planning, and who takes responsibility for it. Discussion of the physiology of the various methods can help alleviate many unwanted fears. The subject of family planning is also important in dealing with adolescent groups. As social work practice incorporates family planning as an integral part of its profession, it will become more effective.     

Ways to make family planning popular in tribal villages

A study was conducted in Lakhipur, India, a tribal village of Santhals and Paharias, to discover their knowledge of and attitude toward the national family planning program. Only 60% of the respondents had heard of the program; only 2 or 3 people had any usable knowledge of family planning. There was widespread opposition, based on tradition and religion. Children in this area are still viewed as a economic asset. Much personal attention will be necessary to change attitudes in Lakhipur. Village leaders must become family planning acceptors. Propaganda should be frequent and varied. Door to door workers should be employed. Family planning personnel must be easily accessible.     

Family planning programs and fertility decline

A recently completed World Bank statistical study of family planning in 63 developing countries indicated that countries which experienced a large decline in birth rates between 1960-1977 were more likely to have a family planning program, an official population policy aimed at decreasing the birth rate, and a relatively high level of development than countries which experienced smaller or no decline in birth rates. The 65 countries represented 95% of the population of the developing world. Birth rate declines of 10% or more between 1960-1977 were experienced by: 1) 10 of the 26 countries which had a family planning program and a policy aimed at reducing the birth rate; 2) 6 of the 19 countries which had a family planning program but lacked clearly defined population objectives; and 3) 2 of the 18 countries without any population policy or program. Furthermore, the implementation of a family planning program and the adoption of a population policy were directly related to the development level of the country. This finding suggested that countries need to reach a certain level of development before they have the capacity to develop population programs and policies. When a country is sufficiently advanced to collect population data, awareness of population problems increases and they are more likely to adopt a population policy. In addition, government efficiency increases as development proceeds and governments must have a certain level of efficiency before they can implement effective programs.     

Lessons Learned from the Kinship Education and Support Program (KEPS): Developing Effective Support Groups for Formal Kinship Caregivers

This qualitative study examines the effectiveness of the Kinship Education Preparation and Support (KEPS) program, a group-work program designed specifically to address the varied support needs of formal kinship caregivers. There were a total of 43 participants in this study, including relative caregivers, child welfare workers, and community leaders, all of whom participated in one of six focus groups. Themes emergent from the focus groups were: the need for, and benefits of, support programs for formal kinship caregivers, implementation challenges, and improvements for KEPS. Recommendations for planning supportive and educational groups for relative foster parents will be discussed using components of Kurland's planning model.     

Family planning and the Malawian male

To curb the deleterious socioeconomic effects of rapid population growth, the Government of Malawi has adopted a National Child Spacing Program. Women who attend maternal health centers are counseled about the harmful effects of closely spaced childbearing, informed of contraceptive options, and urged to discuss family planning with their husband. This strategy fails to consider the control by Malawian men over women's reproductive capacities and family size decision making. If Malawi's child spacing program is to be successful in reducing fertility, the emphasis must be shifted to men. Needed is an educational campaign to convince men that large family size--currently considered a sign of virility--adversely affects the family's standard of living. Malawian men are more likely to be convinced by arguments based on economics than concerns about maternal-child health. For example, educational messages could focus on the inability of malnourished children to perform farm work, the higher incomes and ability to provide old age support of well-educated children, the high price of a large dwelling, and the debts incurred by providing food and clothing for many children. Specific target groups in need of such interventions include low-income skilled and semi-skilled urban workers, smallholder farmers, and small-scale businessmen. In rural areas, family planning messages can be incorporated into existing agricultural extension and functional literacy programs.     

The social and economic impacts of immigration detention facilities: a South Australian case study

The negative attitudes fostered by political rhetoric against asylum seekers create significant problems when asylum seekers are housed within communities. Much of the community's opposition focuses on the perceived economic and social impacts of large numbers of asylum seekers. However, we currently lack research on the local economic and social impacts of asylum seekers. As a contribution to this evidence base our paper outlines a South Australian case study of the impact of a low security immigration detention facility on the local economy, health services and social cohesion. Our impact assessment found that community concerns were not borne out. There were increases in employment and local expenditure, no reduction in health care services or access, and tensions between residents subsided, as did initially strong reactions against the asylum seekers themselves. The minimal impacts were due to the government and community interventions such as seeking local contracts and providing onsite health services. This case study is used to provide some guidelines for other communities to effectively target the fears that matter most to the community – either through disseminating information that reduces fears and myths, or through planning and interventions that minimise negative impacts and enhance positive benefits. In this way, the arrival of asylum seekers can potentially become one that benefits all community members.     

Solidarity and tension between age-groups in the United States: challenge for an aging America in the 21st century

In this article, we argue that intergenerational tensions in the United States reflect a strategy for serving the aged that stresses the underlying values of individualism and self-reliance. Using national survey data, we examine the extent to which Americans' view of public responsibility for the aged has shifted between the mid-1980s and late-1990s, a period characterized by the intensification of "generational" politics, as well as a growing hostility toward "big government." We consider four factors that may be responsible for the escalation of intergenerational tensions as they are manifest in the erosion of public support for programs and policies serving the elderly: (1) Declining intergenerational solidarity with the aged ; (2) Increasing concerns over age-inequity in public programs ; (3) Increasing concerns over resource-inequity in public programs; and (4) Increasing opposition to big government . Results indicate that the public has generally grown more apprehensive about the value and costs of government programs serving both the elderly and the poor. Yet, the fact that Social Security enjoys far more support than social programs serving the poor suggests that the elderly are perceived as more deserving of their benefits than other dependent groups in society. The public also appears increasingly reluctant to redistribute old age benefits according to need. Age-group contrasts revealed little evidence of direct tension between the generations. The results suggest that growing distrust of government and reluctance to help the poor has indirectly fueled opposition to public spending on the older population. Proposed changes to programs and policies affecting the elderly will need to take into account the ambivalence felt by many Americans toward a government they expect to make good on its promise to care for all older citizens, but to use fewer resources in doing so.     

Youth and parent perceptions of aftercare supports at discharge from residential care

While much is known about youth struggles after reintegration into the home and community settings following stays in out‐of‐home care, little is known about appropriate supports for aftercare, or parent (see Note ¹ ) and youth perceptions during this critical transition period. This study seeks to begin to address these questions through surveys evaluating youth (n = 48) and parent (n = 48) perceptions of (i) transition planning, family preparedness and aftercare; (ii) youth preparedness for the transition period across major life domains (e.g. education, health care, relationships); and (iii) the importance of specific aftercare supports and services. Results indicate differences between youth and parents on perceptions of need for continued supports, likelihood of participation in aftercare programs; and youth preparedness for success in relationships, family and independent living domains. In contrast, similarities were found on youth and parent ratings regarding the importance of specific services and supports, with both groups indicating supports in education as most important and supports in mental health as least. Study limitations, future research and implications are provided.     

Creating elder-friendly communities: preparations for an aging society

Because many communities where older people live were not designed for their needs, older residents may require support to remain in the least restrictive environment. "Age-prepared communities" utilize community planning and advocacy to foster aging in place. "Elder-friendly communities" are places that actively involve, value, and support older adults, both active and frail, with infrastructure and services that effectively accommodate their changing needs. This paper presents an analysis of the literature and results of a Delphi study identifying the most important characteristics of an elder-friendly community: accessible and affordable transportation, housing, health care, safety, and community involvement opportunities. We also highlight innovative programs and identify how social workers can be instrumental in developing elder-friendly communities.     

Breast-feeding programs and lactational amenorrhea: evaluation using event history analysis

The purpose of this paper is to present an approach toward evaluating the effectiveness of breast feeding programs in relation to their impact on the duration of post partum amenorrhea. The current emphasis on improving reproductive health through family planning services is likely to increase the use of LAM as a birth spacing method. As a result, evaluation of the net impact of breast feeding duration on the length of post partum amenorrhea is essential for designing an effective family planning program. We present event history analysis as an useful tool in evaluating the effectiveness breast feeding programs on post partum amenorrhea. Data from NFH survey (India) of the State of Rajasthan are used to illustrate the event history approach toward outcome evaluation.     

Context of Acceptability of Topical Microbicides: Sexual Relationships

Domains central to the effects of sexual relationships on the acceptability of a vaginal protection method were explored in 14 focus groups and 38 in-depth interviews with women and men recruited from a health department's sexually transmitted infections (STI) and family planning clinics. Findings indicate that acceptability depended on a couple's relationship type, classified as serious, casual, or "new." Potential barriers to communication about product use may be overcome through direct or indirect covert use, depending on relationship type. More men than women thought women should always tell their partners if they use microbicides, regardless of relationship type. Results indicate the importance of the relationship context in understanding the likely acceptability of using microbicides, and perhaps any method of STI/HIV protection .     

Women Really Care

Pressures to contain or reduce public expenditure are giving rise to policies geared to reduce the demand for direct state services. These involve alternative programs featuring the transfer of responsibilities, but not necessarily control, to more local, private, and family bases. Such trends depend upon the availability of the apparently cheap labour of women. Community care generally means care by females, but this fact is usually unacknowledged and the costs of the emerging programs tend to be reckoned only as those accruing to the state. Here we focus on two policy areas in which community and family have been emphasised, family day care and deinstitutionalisation in child welfare.^*     

Reaching Inner-City Children

One of the obstacles faced by community social service agencies is difficulty in attracting adolescents to the services offered them. Adoldscents typically do not walk in or keep appointments at outpatient clinics and can be difficult to engage even for outreach programs. One solution to this dilemma is to go where the children are: the public schools. One of the biggest problems in the Boston public school system is that many students and their families have pressing social, emotional, and physical needs that are not being met outside the school and that adversely affect their education. The schools are educational institutions, not human service agencies, and they are ill prepared to deal with many of the problems and needs of their students' lives. In 1984, an independent board composed of representatives from the Boston Public Schools, state, city, and private social service agencies, parents and students, secured funding and formed the Boston Student Human Services Collaborative. The mission of the Collaborative was to supplement and expand support services to the schools. The hope was that such services would free up both children and teachers to invest in each other, thereby increasing learning. This paper describes the group work component of a Collaborative program at an inner-city school. After a brief look at the inner-city context, the group work program model is presented as a case study, including specific types of groups that have worked well and details of recruitment, composition, goals, activities, and leadership roles. Following this is a discussion of race, color, and ethnicity, and then a list of guiding principles for working with middle school adolescents in groups.     

The Politics of Market-Based Environmental Regulation: Continuity and Change in Air Pollution Control Policy Conflict

Objectives. To expand scholarly attention to a neglected area of environmental policy and politics, I attempt to test several empirical propositions drawn from the small body of existing research on the politics of market-based environmental regulation. Methods. I analyze public comments on a recent U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulatory action guiding states on the design of various market-based air pollution control programs. I focus on the types of commenting organizations and the nature, extent, and foundations of their support or opposition to market-based regulatory instruments. Results. I find more support for than opposition to the use of economic incentive programs in air pollution control. The support from business commenters is not surprising, but the level of support expressed by state regulators departs from previous research findings. Environmental groups are the principal dissenters. Overall, the findings suggest both change and continuity in the politics of air pollution control policymaking, with some possibility of a shift in the contours of the advocacy coalitions in the pollution control policy network. Conclusions. Market-based environmental regulation is still an evolving phenomenon in American public policy. Further research on the politics of its development is in order, and the opportunities to pursue such research are substantial.