Aging in Rural Japan—Limitations in the Current Social Care Policy

Owing to equal and increased opportunities for education and employment, today's trend in Japanese marriages is characterized by late and less frequent marriage. This paper discusses unavoidable diversity in rural families to point out the anticipated consequences of aging in rural areas and to discuss limitations in current public social care policies. Specifically, the averaged proportion of never-married and single persons at ages 45 to 49 and 50 to 54 in legally recognized depopulated cities, towns, and villages in Japan is calculated to illustrate the expected diversity in families in rural depopulated areas. It also illustrates the need for future studies to develop better social care policies for increasing numbers of single caregivers and single elders.     

Living with dementia in rural and remote Scotland: Diverse experiences of people with dementia and their carers

There is a lack of research into people's experiences of using services as dementia sufferers themselves, or because they care for someone with dementia, in rural areas. This article explores their experiences in the context of rural Scotland, drawing on data gathered from both people with dementia and their carers. Our research suggests that understanding the nuanced and co-constituted experience of dementia in rural communities is a pre-requisite for improving service provision. The paper explores the way in which participants linked their experiences to their spatial location in rural areas. Our findings suggest that participants used a narrative of idealised rurality which linked together interwoven and overlapping social networks, a physical relationship with place and a sense of self sufficiency. However, the participants’ stories also highlighted the diversity in experiences as service users between places, suggesting a disjunction between the generalising narrative of the rural idyll and their particular situations. These findings extend the literature on rural mental health issues and on the experience of dementia in particular, in turn helping to inform place and person centred policies.     

Planned relocation of severely depopulated rural settlements: a case study from Japan

Large-scale rural-urban migration in post-war Japan in conjunction with demographic transition resulted in the depopulating of the rural areas from the late 1950s. The Japanese government has been energetic since 1970 in attempting to halt the drift to the cities. One of the less successful policies has been the voluntary resettlement of severely depopulated communities.This paper examines one such extreme case, that of Kojō, a village in the mountains of Hyōgo Prefecture, which has lost more than 80% of its population since 1955. By the early 1980s, the population of Kojō was so depleted and had aged so rapidly that the inhabitants opted for resettlement.This paper traces the economic and demographic decline of the village of Kojō, and presents the administrative background to the resettlement plan. It examines in detail the rehabilitation of the inhabitants in a purpose-built housing estate in December 1984, and attempts to draw some conclusions regarding the concept of resettlement of severely depopulated settlements in remote rural areas.     

A qualitative look at child care selection among rural welfare-to-work participants

The welfare reforms of 1996 changed the administration of public assistance to children and families. One of the key provisions, requiring parents to join the workforce, resulted in an expanded need for child care. Prior research demonstrates that welfare recipients, particularly in rural areas, utilize informal child care arrangements. Further, recipients in rural communities face greater challenges due to a lack of transportation, geographic spread, and less access to services. This qualitative study examined the child care selection experiences of 33 welfare recipients in six rural Northern California counties. More families selected home-based than center-based child care. During their search processes, welfare recipients utilized both formal and informal routes to locate child care providers. Parents took advantage of their connections with the social service system, but also accessed their social networks for recommendations. Rural families also reported that their choices were constrained by the available programs, transportation, and by the quality of the programs they were able to access. Given the high rate of utilization of home-based arrangements among families in welfare-to-work programs, quality of care in such programs should be improved. Recommendations for increasing quality and access, as well as supports for welfare to work participants, are discussed.     

The relationship of maternal work characteristics to childcare type and quality in rural communities

Drawing on data from the Family Life Project collected in North Carolina and Pennsylvania, this paper examines the relationship between maternal work characteristics and childcare type and quality in rural communities. Research is limited on the childcare experiences of rural families. Rural areas have less access to formal childcare and families often commute long distances for work, restricting childcare options. Employed mothers using childcare were selected (n=441). Logistic and OLS regression was used to examine which characteristics, including workplace support, objective occupational measures, hours, wage, and shift, predicted care type and quality. Results indicated that most families were using informal care. Those with more hazardous work conditions and working night shifts were less likely to use centers. Higher quality care was related to more workplace support, center use, and higher wages. Implications for social policy and practice are discussed.     

Social Capital in Rural and Urban Communities1

Abstract Conventional wisdom says that social capital is more common among families in rural communities than urban communities. Using data from the 1988 wave of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, we compare the prevalence, type, and extent of social exchanges in these places. Results indicate that families living in rural areas are more likely to exchange exclusively with kin than are families living in urban areas. In particular, families living in rural areas are more likely to receive money help from kin than families in urban areas. Results on patterns of giving are more complex, with rural origin families with younger household heads more likely to give support to kin, and rural origin families with older heads less likely to provide such support, as compared to otherwise similar families of urban origin. Finally, only modest urban-rural differences in amounts exchanged (in dollars) are found among otherwise similar families. Overall, some of the urban-rural differences in patterns of exchange are explained by different family characteristics; however, key urban-rural differences remain, probably reflecting differences in norms and the availability of institutional support services in different areas.     

Rural Social Service Disparities and Creative Social Work Solutions for Rural Families Across the Life Span

The provision of social services in rural areas has historically presented a challenge for social workers. Rural social service disparities are presented in relation to key challenges surrounding the provision of social work services in the rural United States. Barriers that define rurality and hinder the provision of social work to rural families, a multicultural examination of rural community strengths and resiliency, and creative solutions for rural social work delivery are discussed. A case study utilizing collaborative partnerships between rural churches, schools, and community leaders to combat rural homelessness and streamline service delivery for rural families across the life cycle is presented.     

Coming Home? Patterns and Characteristics of Return Migration in Kyrgyzstan

Bishkek, the capital of Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Kazakhstan are all major destinations for labour migrants from rural areas of southern Kyrgyzstan. Along with searching for better income, younger men and women also migrate for educational purposes; children and elderly people stay behind. While older migrants often regard this separation from their families as temporary, younger people start to put down roots in places other than their homes and this has long‐term consequences for development in rural areas. The paper therefore looks into families’ multi‐local settings and why young migrants fail to return home. It also considers the potential impact on rural development including remittance dependency, an increasing shortage of qualified labour and new conditions of social care. The paper concludes with an assessment of the policy implications.     

The social investment approach as a field of job creation. From the ‘recalibration’ to a resurgent trade-off between employment growth and low wage (white) jobs. A comparison between Germany and Italy

The social investment approach emerged as a new welfare paradigm, aimed at reconciling the traditional functions of the welfare supply with a productive social agenda, designed at preparing people to confront the ‘new social risks’, whether they be related to the problem of balancing paid work and family responsibilities, upgrading the skills, preventing inequalities and promoting the availability of in-kind services. In order to achieve these objectives, especially those related to care needs and work-life balance, the adoption of social investment-based strategies necessarily implies an expansion of the jobs related to health and social care services. In more recent years, many studies have analysed the limitations of the social investment policies because of their different redistributive impacts on social groups. Several studies have found a higher use of these policies for high-income families. Another source of criticism on social investment is that spending on these policies would seem to crowd out more traditional passive social expenditures. In this article, we examine another question related to the widespread of this approach: what are the effects of the social investment policies in terms of direct job creation? In fact, one of the more controversial issues, related to social investment policies, is their direct contribution to the labour market in terms of both quantity and quality of work within welfare services. The article analyses these issues focusing on Germany and Italy, two countries that represent not only two different care regimes but also two distinct models regarding job creation strategies in the care sector. In doing so, particular attention will be paid to long-term care policies, as they represent one of the pivotal areas of the social investment approach, both in terms of social services, to address new social risks, and new jobs related to welfare services     

Filling a critical gap: measuring work policies that affect families globally

Work is a central element in most people's lives, and its adequacy and value cannot be measured by simple figures showing how many people have gained or lost jobs. Current measures of decent work are more comprehensive in terms of what matters to individuals, but deficient in their coverage of work policies that matter to families. In this article, we argue the importance and feasibility of measuring policies and laws that shape work quality, and in particular those that shape how work affects families on a global basis. We make the case that this policy area is especially critical under changing social conditions, and propose a manageable and feasible set of indicators permitting an assessment of the extent to which national labor policies facilitate the ability of working adults to meet the requirements of their jobs as well as the needs of their families. Methods are described and findings mapped for all UN countries in key areas including maternal leave, paternal leave, leave to care for children's health, leave to care for adult family members, and leave to meet other family needs.     

Holidays for children and families in need: an exploration of the research and policy context for social tourism in the UK

Although provision of holidays for families in need has been mainstreamed within the social care policies of many countries in the rest of Europe, ‘social tourism’ has yet to be adopted in the United Kingdom. This article reports on a scoping study of research and policy in this area. While there is limited robust research on the impact of holidays, emerging evidence supports a range of claims for benefits to children and families. The article concludes that both political emphasis on social inclusion and pan-European initiatives on ‘Tourism For All’ currently provide an opportunity for the provision of holidays for families in need to be placed firmly on the social care agenda.     

The Child Care Arrangements of Preschool-Age Children in Immigrant Families in the United States

This study examined the child care arrangements of children in immigrant families. Using data from the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), the study found great diversity in the child care arrangements of children according to their nativity status. Children in immigrant families, especially those in low‐income immigrant families, were found less likely to use centre‐based child care. Mexican, Asian, and other Hispanic children are also less likely to use centre‐based child care. Because quality centre‐based child care has been shown to benefit preschool‐age children and help prepare them for school, both scholastically and psychologically, less use of centre‐based child care among children in immigrant families compared to children in non‐immigrant families is a potentially troubling finding. Public policies promoting greater access to and more use of centre‐based child care, especially for low‐income immigrant families and two‐parent immigrant families, may make a significant difference to their children's long‐term adaptation, and their children's school readiness and achievement.     

Family Caregivers for Seniors in Rural Areas

In this article, the demographic characteristics of family caregivers for seniors in rural communities are assessed to examine whether their circumstances could facilitate or impede their well-being. Services available in rural communities for family members providing ongoing care to frail seniors is examined, particularly those that provide health and social services. How families access these services and whether there are specific barriers in service provision are analyzed based on current social work practice and the research literature. Trends for future services are identified as well as whether these trends support new roles for social workers in rural settings.     

The rural arena: The diversity of protest in rural England

In the past 15–20 years, the rural areas of England have been used by a wide diversity of groups as the stage for their protest activities. Some have argued that this is due the rise of a rural social movement; this paper contends that rural areas have become both available and advantageous as the locale of protest through a range of interlocking factors. Firstly, that the rise of the network society has repositioned the societal importance of rural areas. Secondly, that the governance of rural areas has changed, allowing the social stake of rurality to be more widely contested. Thirdly, that opportunities to protest have shifted in favour of rural spaces, in terms of technology and policing. Through a discussion of recent changes in rural England and three case studies, The Land is Ours, Farmers for Action and the Organic Food and Farming Movement, this paper examines these changes and what they mean for the future of rural England.     

Health,personal mobility and the use of health services in rural Norfolk

Trends towards the centralisation of both primary care and hospital services are increasing the distances that rural residents must travel to receive health care. Contradicting the widely held image of the healthiness of rural people, data from social surveys in Norfolk show that some of the remoter rural areas have populations with a relatively high need for health care. Furthermore, the groups with most need for health care (the old, the disabled, the poor, etc.) are also those with low levels of personal mobility, for whom travelling long distances to centralised health services is particularly difficult. After adjustments have been made for variations in need, it is shown that people in the remoter areas receive much less health care than comparable people in more accessible areas. However, branch surgeries do seem to make the general practitioner service more accessible, particularly to less mobile rural residents.     

Long-term care policy and the American family

This article examines current and proposed long-term care policies and the social values of American families by looking at the influence of policy on family behavior. The analysis asks two questions. First, have our policies in recent years supported or undermined family values regarding the care of older members? Second, are our existing family values compatible with home and community-based long-term care reform proposals? Aaron, Mann, and Taylor's (1994) model for policy and changing values provides direction throughout. Findings based on behavior as a proxy for values suggest that current policies influence family values, and in turn, family values influence policies. Future policy is discussed in light of changed values, American family structure, dysfunctional families, individualism and collectivism, and gender neutrality and justice.     

Social welfare in rural Europe

Rural development has been identified by EU leaders as one of the priorities of European structural policies, and as one of the objectives of cohesion policy. Yet despite this commitment, we are very poorly informed about how ordinary people live across the rural areas of Europe, their incomes and quality of life, and their perceptions of policies and economic and social change. This paper argues that greater attention should be devoted to issues of poverty, disadvantage and social exclusion in rural Europe by both policymakers and researchers. This is particularly crucial at the present time as rural Europe is subject to major structural changes deriving both from changes in rural economy and society and from policy initiatives such as the Maastricht Treaty and the Single European Act. These are over and above the wider trends operating throughout Europe in relation to employment, fiscal crisis and ageing, for example. A central requirement is for the articulation of policies for tackling economic and social exclusion (e.g. Poverty 3, Exclusion 1), on the one hand, with those directed towards rural development (e.g. Leader 2), on the other. Fundamental household survey work is required to increase our understanding of what constitutes rural disadvantage, which client groups are affected, and how policies can contribute towards relieving their disadvantage, preferably through client-based instruments rather than less appropriate area-based approaches. The last part of this paper presents preliminary results of such a survey, focusing on issues of employment, housing, poverty and quality of life.     

Employed Rural,Low-Income,Single Mothers’ Family and Work Over Time

The purpose of this qualitative research study was to examine how low-income, single mothers manage their family and work lives. Analysis was based on longitudinal data collected from 28 rural, low-income, single mothers across 11 states who were continuously employed over three waves. Four main themes were identified: demands from family and work, resources the mothers used to maintain employment, work-family conflict, and strategies to retain employment. This study concludes that despite all the difficulties, mothers try to utilize their limited resources and adopt strategies for combining family and work life even though their demands and resources vary over time. Mothers employed in the same jobs receive consistent support from families. Implications for child care and leave policies are discussed.     

The role of child care social work in supporting families with children in need and providing protective services—past,present and future

This article examines the way in which child care social work with deprived families has changed and developed since the inception of Children's Departments in 1948. It is argued that between 1948 and 1970 child care social workers enjoyed a fair measure of social support. A variety of reasons are considered for explaining this—specialization, smallness of size, privacy and a consensus about the needs of children. From the early 1970s it is argued that broader societal changes, including a shift away from social solidarity towards individualism, organizational changes and the advent of child abuse as a public concern, resulted in con?icting demands on child care social workers and a subsequent loss of credibility and con?dence. The 1990s have seen a return to emphasis on family support policies which has been further accelerated in the new millennium by New Labour's stated commitment to eliminating child poverty and creating better life opportunities for all children. The implications of these new developments for child care social workers engaged in meeting the needs of children living in highly disadvantaged families are considered. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Child care policy: A need for greater advocacy

While some scholars have recognized the importance of child care to families in the United States (Kamerman, 2001; Waldfogel, 1998), child care has not been viewed as a core social policy concern in the United States. In this article, we provide an overview of child care needs in the U.S. followed by an analysis of three major federal programs that shape U.S. child care policy. The first, the Child Care Development Fund (CCDF), provides financial child care supplements to low-income parents to enable them to engage in paid labor. The second policy, The Family Medical Leave Act (FMLA), is technically a universally applicable policy enabling people to care for a family member in need, including all parents who choose to spend a few weeks of unpaid leave with a newborn child. The third is the U.S. tax policy, including child care exemptions, deductions and credits. We suggest that, though all of these policies exist to help families care for children, they fail the children and families that they are purportedly designed to help. We then discuss the crucial role that professionals who work with families and children can play in shaping U.S. child care policies.