Editorial comment

The special issue of theJournal of Gambling Behavior, dedicated to a discussion of compulsive gambling and the law, represents a first effort in addressing some of the many complicated issues on this topic. Articles by experts on compulsive gambling—written by legal authorities, a treatment provider, and victims of the disorder—are included to present the broadest possible forum to analyze the turmoil the idea of compulsive gambling is having on the American legal system. Included are an historical account of how changing laws affect compulsive gamblers, problems facing the expert witness, effects of civil service policies and military law, comparisons of U.S. and English legalization debates, lottery issues, concerns of a lawyer representing casinos, and personal accounts by those who are suffering from this disorder.I. Nelson Rose is an Associate Professor of Law at Whittier College School of Law as well as a licensed attorney. Professor Rose is recognized as the nation's leading authority on gambling and the law.Dr. Valerie C. Lorenz has specialized in research, education and treatment of compulsive gamblers since 1973. She has extensive experience in military, state and federal courts, having served as a qualified expert witness on compulsive gambling.     

Predictability in Pathological Gambling? Applying the Duplication of Purchase Law to the Understanding of Cross-Purchases Between Regular and Pathological Gamblers

The objective of this study is to explore the gambling participations and game purchase duplication of light regular, heavy regular and pathological gamblers by applying the Duplication of Purchase Law. Current study uses data collected by the Australian Productivity Commission for eight different types of games. Key behavioral statistics on light regular, heavy regular, and pathological gamblers were computed and compared. The key finding is that pathological gambling, just like regular gambling, follows the Duplication of Purchase Law, which states that the dominant factor of purchase duplication between two brands is their market shares. This means that gambling between any two games at pathological level, like any regular consumer purchases, exhibits “law-like” regularity based on the pathological gamblers’ participation rate of each game. Additionally, pathological gamblers tend to gamble more frequently across all games except lotteries and instant as well as make greater cross-purchases compared to heavy regular gamblers. A better understanding of the behavioral traits between regular (particularly heavy regular) and pathological gamblers can be useful to public policy makers and social marketers in order to more accurately identify such gamblers and better manage the negative impacts of gambling.     

On a Roll: The Process of Initiation and Cessation of Problem Gambling Among Adolescents

As gambling becomes more accessible and acceptable in society, problems associated with gambling and gaming have begun to affect ever increasing numbers of adolescents. Although restricted from most forms of gambling by law, many adolescents are finding a path into problem gambling. Some are becoming compulsive gamblers early in their gambling career, facing a future filled with consequences and problems. Understanding the pathway or process by which these adolescents become engaged in gambling behavior and how they can extricate themselves from this addictive behavior can enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of our interventions. This article offers a perspective on the initiation and cessation of compulsive gambling using the basic elements of the process of intentional behavior change outlined in the Stages of Change from the Transtheoretical Model. The process of initiation of a problematic behavior is similar to the process of modification or cessation of a problematic behavior in terms of these stages of change. With adolescents it is important to distinguish between the process of initiation, which has implications for prevention of gambling problems, and the process of cessation, which often necessitates the assistance of treatment. Creating interventions that parallel the process of change offers the potential for personalizing and potentiating efforts to reduce the prevalence and consequences associated with compulsive or pathological and problem gambling. Application of this model to gambling behavior offers a heuristic that is intriguing and requires substantiation through rigorous research.     

The Third Sector, Human Security, and Anti-Terrorism: The United States and Beyond

This paper, a revised version of the keynote address to the Seventh International Conference of the International Society for Third Sector Research (Bangkok, July 2006), explores the increasing tendency of governments to view the third sector as a source of human insecurity and uncivil society in the wake of terrorist attacks. The paper discusses the means governments use to control third sector activity that they view as potentially linked to terrorism, the need for comparative analysis of these measures, and the role of the third sector and scholars in recognizing the responsibilities of governments to prevent third sector organizations being used in terrorism while preserving the independence and vitality of the third sector.Professor of Law and International Affairs and Faculty Scholar, University of Iowa; Visiting Professor of Law, Harvard Law School (2005–06). This paper is a revised and expanded version of the keynote address to the Seventh International Conference of the International Society for Third Sector Research, Bangkok, Thailand, July 9, 2006.     

Sociodemographic,Psychopathological and Clinical Characteristics of Pathological Slot-Machine Gamblers in Treatment: A Descriptive Study of Spanish Male Gamblers

The purpose of this study is to describe the sociodemographic, psychopathological, and clinical characteristics of a sample of Spanish male pathological slot-machine gamblers in treatment. The sample was made up of 80 men who met the criteria of the DSM-IV for pathological gambling. The mean age was 29 years, and the mean age at which they had started slot-machine gambling was 20 years, with a mean problem duration of three years before they sought treatment. Regarding employment status, service sector workers were the most frequently represented (36.3%), followed by students (20%) and the unemployed (15%). The most influential psychopathological variables noted were the prevalence of affective disorders (36.2%), past abuse of alcohol (12.5%), and regular use of illegal substances (26.3%), either in the past or at the time of seeking treatment. Also discussed is the low age of the men seeking treatment for gambling problems, the way they finance their gambling and explanations for their gambling behaviour.     

A pathological or a compulsive gambler?

Development of the behavior completion model of compulsive behaviors and the imaginal desensitization therapy based on it is outlined. A case history is reported of a 65 year old woman who considered she was gambling out of control on slot machines and suffered from resultant guilt and depression. Following a week's treatment with imaginal desensitization she regained control. After an episode of heavy gambling following an unexpected inheritance she ceased slot-machine gambling entirely without further treatment. Her interest in her past activities increased and she developed additional ones. Her condition did not meet criteria for DSM-III-R diagnosis, yet she suffered from compulsive gambling which responded to treatment. Her response of controlled gambling appeared an acceptable outcome but proved unstable in her case. She was then able to cease gambling without therapy additional to the single mode employed.     

Evolving African American/White socioeconomic inequality in the public sector: A review essay

A sufficient body of research across disciplines (Sociology, Political Science, Public Administration) now exists to address the evolving dynamics of public sector African American/White socio-economic inequality across the post-1965 civil rights era. This review synthesizes this research, bringing together an unprecedented amount of evidence to support two primary points: (1) Public sector inequality has been fluid, that is, it has been characterized by varying levels of African American disadvantage. Though African American disadvantage has progressively increased in the post-1990 period, for now it retains its occupational niche status, and (2) The underpinnings of this fluidity of African American/White inequality are to a considerable degree a product of historically specific responses to inequality dynamics in the private sector that I classify as either compensatory or emulative. I discuss the importance of focusing on inter-sectoral connections in understanding evolving racial inequality in the public sector and conclude by offering directions for future research.     

Pathological gambling as a defense against loss

The notion of pathological gambling as an elaborate defense against psychic pain is consistent with the traditional psychoanalytic literature, as well as recent writing on the process of addiction. The losses that pathological gamblers experience as a result of their gambling are enormous and well-documented, but losses suffered prior to the onset of gambling behavior may be far more significant. This paper explores the idea that pervasive developmental loss is a core issue for the compulsive gambler resulting in an intolerance for the anticipation of future losses and the certainty of mortality. Eight semistructured interviews were conducted with pathological gamblers in Gamblers Anonymous to explore the incidence of developmental loss and consequent styles of coping. An in-depth genogram and developmental history were done with each subject, revealing extensive developmental losses in all subjects.     

The gambling lifestyle: II. Treatment

Two individuals with records of prior compulsive gambling involvement are profiled in order to illustrate the nature of a gambling lifestyle and describe the process of lifestyle change. The treatment model utilized by therapists proposing a lifestyle interpretation of compulsive gambling behavior is guided by three primary objectives or goals: (1) the cessation of lifestyle activities; (2) the development of skills useful in managing gambling-related conditions, choices, and cognitions; and (3) the implementation of an effective program of follow-up intervention and support. These goals give rise to the three stages of lifestyle intervention — (1) laying a foundation for change, (2) identifying vehicles for change, and (3) establishing a reinforcing nongambling life-style—from which specific change strategies are derived. The implications of this model and the possibility of limited generalizability are discussed.The assertions and opinions contained herein are the private views of the author and should not be construed as official or as reflecting the views of the Federal Bureau of Prisons or United States Department of Justice.     

Re-conceptualizing Civil Society: Towards a Radical Understanding

The article examines problematic aspects of contemporary theoretical thinking about civil society within a Western liberal-democratic context. The impact of neo-liberalism upon narratives of civil society, the assumption that civility resides more conspicuously within the world of associational life, and the tendency to conflate ‘civil society’ with the ‘third sector’ are areas critically discussed. Such conceptual incongruities, it is argued, obscure the path to a more radical theoretical understanding of civil society. In the second part of the article an alternative model of civil society is proposed. Supporting Evers premise that ‘every attempt to narrow down civil society to the third sector seriously impoverishes the very concept of civil society’ (Evers, Voluntary Sector Review 1:116, 2010), it is argued that civil society is best understood as a normative political concept, as being contingent in nature and distinct from the third sector.     

Obsessive-Compulsive Features in Pathological Lottery and Scratch-Ticket Gamblers

The results of this study support the notion that pathological gamblers drawn from the community would score higher on all three scores from the YBOCS than light gamblers. Consistent with hypotheses, pathological gamblers (lottery and scratch ticket) reported more obsessions, compulsions, and avoidance behavior than the light gamblers, and also reported having more urges to engage in injurious behaviors to themselves and others. These findings provide evidence that pathological gambling falls in a spectrum or family of disorders which have obsessive-compulsive disorder at its core. These findings support McElroy, Hudson, Philips, et al.'s (1993) suggestions of similarities between OCD and Impulse Control Disorders, and extend Blaszczynski (1999) findings of overlap between pathological gamblers and OCD in a treatment population. Heavy gamblers also reported significantly more hoarding symptoms and compulsive buying than light gamblers. More research in this area may show further evidence of a spectrum of disorders with obsessive compulsive disorder at its core, and show further links between impulse control disorders (such as pathological gambling) and OCD.     

The gambling lifestyle: I. theory

This paper describes the lifestyle model of gambling behavior in which compulsive gambling behavior is conceptualized as a lifestyle characterized by pseudoresponsibility, self-ascension, hypercompetitiveness, and social rule breaking/bending/ twisting. The underlying premise of this theory is that gambling behavior takes on the appearance of a lifestyle when it is viewed by the individual as a viable means of enhancing self-worth, minimizing personal insecurity, and controlling fear. Three primary areas of theoretical and research interest are covered in this paper: (1) the theoretical underpinnings of lifestyle theory; (2) the individual components (conditions, choice, cognition) of a gambling lifestyle; and (3) the developmental progression of a gambling lifestyle.The author would like to thank Henry Lesieur and anonymous reviewers of earlier versions of this paper for their helpful comments. The assertions and opinions contained herein are the private views of the author and should not be construed as official or as reflecting the views of the Federal Bureau of Prisons or United States Department of Justice.     

Gambling in prison: addiction or leisure activity?

Several studies conducted around the world confirm the presence of gambling in detention facilities. Based on interviews conducted with male inmates in three Canadian penitentiaries, the authors of this article studied the reasons to gamble or not gamble in detention. The inmates' relationships with gambling prior to their incarceration were taken into consideration, to explain notably the influence of context on the reasons why they do or do not gamble. For most inmates, gambling is a good recreational alternative to boredom; however, some use it also to socialize or even protect themselves indirectly. Even more interesting is the fact that, despite the presence of gambling addicts among the inmates interviewed, none of the reasons generally associated with pathological gambling was reported during the interviews to explain gambling in detention. These results reinforce the influence of contextual factors on pathological gambling problems. Anxiety-producing factors in gamblers' lives, an environment where gambling is too accessible, as well as solitary habits, are conducive to addiction. By reducing stressful elements, as well as the availability, variety and special effects of gambling games, prison would indirectly control inmates' compulsive gambling habits during their incarceration.     

District elections and the power of municipal employee unions

Very little prior research has been devoted to the effects of the institutional structure of local government on public sector labor markets. This study addresses the differential effects of the two main systems used to elect city council members — district versus citywide (at-large) elections. The study hypothesizes that, in district-election cities, municipal employees, especially those who are unionized, face a lower cost of influencing city council candidates and, consequently, will have greater power to influence employment conditions. To test this hypothesis, data on U.S. cities over 25,000 population are used to estimate both reduced form and structural wage and employment equations. The results are consistent with the basic hypothesis: district elections provide a more fertile ground for municipal employees, especially those organized in unions, to affect their employment conditions. The authors acknowledge the helpful comments of Tim Sass, Tom Means, and participants in a session at the 1991 Public Choice Society meetings.     

Gambling among lottery winners: Before and after the big score

The proliferation of state lotteries raises the possibility of increasing pathological gambling because large segments of the population are purchasing tickets. This study, based on a 50% response rate of million dollar winners in Ohio in 1986, indicates lottery winners spend relatively small amounts of money on tickets, did not appreciably increase the amount of money they spent on tickets after winning, and rarely engaged in other forms of gambling before or after they won. These data do not support the assumption that lotteries significantly increase the amount of compulsive gambling in our society, but the subject deserves further exploration.     

Prevalence of Adult Problem and Pathological Gambling between 2000 and 2005: An Update

Background Excessive gambling is a prominent Public Health problem with high prevalence rates in many countries. Substance abuse and other co-morbidities often constitute a major health hazard for the person which gambles with a loss of material and social resources, as well as being a major concern for his or her significant others. The present study updates and extends prevalence data to include work published between 2000 and 2005 in English and other European languages. Methods In a three-step search and exclusion process, studies with current adult prevalence rates were gathered. Results Almost all studies fulfil basic research standards. The weighted mean prevalence rates for excessive gambling (problem and pathological) are 3.0% for the South Oaks Gambling Survey (problem 1.2%; pathological 1.8%), 3.3% for the Canadian Problem Gambling Index (problem 2.4%; pathological 0.8%) and 3.1% for the DSM-IV (problem 1.9%; pathological 1.2%). Conclusion The prevalence rates are comparable and relatively stable between countries and across survey instruments, and do not differ from earlier reviews. The regular epidemiological monitoring of excessive gambling remains a major Public Health issue although the distinction between pathological and problem gambling is not appropriate for epidemiological research. Further studies are needed with respect to concomitant lifestyle characteristics.     

Gambling,Drinking and Quality of Life: Evidence from Macao and Australia

The investigation of the interface between psychological constructs, compulsive consumption of alcohol and pathological gambling is an important avenue for development of future initiatives in social marketing or prevention programs. This cross-cultural study attempts to bridge the gap in literature by providing an evaluation of the predictive ability of psychological variables such as gambling urge, gambling-related erroneous cognitions and comorbid alcohol consumption on pathological gambling behaviour and its impact on overall quality of life indicators. Participants consist of 445 Macao and Australian young adults (Mean age = 23 years). Results indicate that probable pathological gamblers as compared with non-gamblers reported significantly lower quality of life in all domains—physical health, psychological well-being, social relationships and environment. Adults who drank more alcohol and have stronger erroneous cognitions evidenced higher pathological gambling behavior. Our research model fits both cohorts and interestingly, erroneous gambling-related cognitions serve as a full mediator for the predictive relationship between gambling urge and pathological gambling in the Macao sample, but serve as a partial mediator in the Australian sample. Targeting erroneous cognitions in future social marketing or preventive campaigns should demonstrate to be an important strategy in reducing the effects of urge to gamble among at-risk individuals. Further implications for the industry, marketing and governmental strategies are discussed.     

Antecedents or Effects of Being a Manager in the Nonprofit,Public, or Private Sector

In this correspondence I postulate a complementary consideration to an article recently published in Nonprofit Management & Leadership: “Factors Attracting Individuals to Nonprofit Management over Public and Private Sector Management” (LeRoux and Feeney 2013). The aim of this correspondence is to provide avenues for further research based on an evaluation of the authors’ analysis and their embedded assumptions on causality and interdependency of the variables used. I perform an extended empirical analysis of the same data as used in LeRoux and Feeney (2013) in which inherent assumptions are adjusted based on available literature. Results show that their conclusions need nuancing, and that further research could focus on (1) a clearer distinction between antecedents and effects of sector of employment, and (2) the different relationships across sectors between work‐related variables, such as job satisfaction, job flexibility, or job clarity.     

The early warning system that failed: A personal account

The author, a criminal lawyer and judge, writes from prison about his views of compulsive gambling, incarceration, the road to recovery, and the special burden placed on sentencing judges when a member of the bar stands before them.Editor's Comment: The Honorable Judge Ottinger, 73, who graduated Magna Cum Laude and Order of the Coif from law school, practiced criminal law for forty years, served four terms as District Magistrate, and two terms as Circuit Court Judge in the state of Maryland. He lost control over his gambling affliction at age sixty-nine. He is attending a self-help group in prison.     

Compulsive gambling and the law: From sin to vice to disease

The idea that compulsive gambling is a disease is in direct conflict with the dominant view in the law that gambling is a vice. Under the traditional view individuals who gamble to excess are morally weak and deserving of punishment. The recognition of pathological gambling as an official mental disease or disorder by the American Psychiatric Association in 1980 created an irreconcilable contention: American law never punishes an individual for being sick. The conflict can be seen in every area of the law and even between judges sitting in the same courtroom. The most dramatic disputes have been over the insanity defense; but, the disease argument has been raised, sometimes successfully, in other criminal cases, to mitigate sentencing, in attorney disbarments, tax cases, bankruptcies, divorces, personal injury claims, and, most significantly, in claims against casinos. The legal disputes will spread and become even more heated as the disease diagnosis becomes more generally accepted.