Hindu-Muslim differential fertility: how much religious and how much socio?

Data from the Bangladesh Fertility Survey (BFS) of 1975 were used to test the hypotheses that the higher the socioeconomic status, the lower the fertility and the narrower the difference in fertility between Muslims and Hindus; and the lower the socioeconomic status, the higher the fertility and the greater the difference in fertility between Muslims and Hindus. The core group for analysis in this study of women married only once and reported to fecund includes 3914 Muslims and 824 Hindus. Actual analysis was based on fewer than these 4738 because of nonresponse to 1 or more pertinent interview questions used in this study. Multiple classification analysis (MCA) was used to analyze the data. Prior to adjustment for the effect of other variables, the fertility of Muslims was a little lower than that of Hindus. The average number of children born to Muslims was 3.89; it was 3.95 for Hindus. Fertility tended to decline with improvement in socioeconomic status, i.e., increase in the level of education, i.e., no formal and primary level, and this almost converged at the middle and higher educational levels. At the lower levels of education, i.e., no formal and 1-5 grades, Muslims had .19-.34 children more than Hindus. This difference was reduced to .07 children at the middle level education, i.e., 6-9 grades. At the higher level of education, Muslims had .09 fewer children than Hindus, and this difference was statistically significant. Prior to adjustment for the effect of other variables, the fertility of Muslims was higher than that of Hindus at almost every level of age at marriage. This picture was reversed when adjustment was made for the effect of other variables. At the lower levels of age at marriage, Muslims has .23-.20 more children than Hindus. At the middle age at marriage, Muslims had .08 fewer children than Hindus. This difference was statistically significant. There was virtually no difference between the 2 groups at the higher age at marriage, i.e., 20-21 years. The effect of urbanization on fertility by education differed for Hindus and Muslims. For Hindus, fertility at each level of education was higher in urban than in rural areas. For Muslims, fertility at each level of education, particularly at higher levels, was lower in urban than in rural areas. No significant difference was found in the use of contraception between Muslims and Hindus at higher levels of education, but at lower levels of education contraceptive use among Hindus was significantly higher than for Muslims. The findings suggest that with an improvement in education, fertility will decline with a corresponding increase in the use of contraception and the difference in fertility and use of contraception between Muslims and Hindus will disappear. The findings also support the tenet that development, especially education, is the best formula for reducing fertility in poor countries.     

初婚年龄的影响因素分析——基于CGSS2006的研究

本文基于“2006年中国综合社会调查”（CGSS2006）数据,使用事件史分析方法,探讨了城乡居民初婚年龄的变化趋势及其社会经济原因。研究发现,教育、职业和家庭的社会经济特征对初婚年龄有着显著的影响,并表现出性别和户籍差异。教育程度对女性初婚年龄的推迟效应大于男性,高等教育对农村户籍女性初婚年龄的推迟效应大于城市户籍女性,技术类职业相比非技术非管理类职业,对农村户籍男性居民的初婚年龄有着显著的提前效应。在城市户籍居民中,父母的教育程度越高,子女的初婚年龄越晚;兄弟姐妹越多,初婚年龄越早。对城市和农村户籍居民而言,父亲从事管理类职业对儿子的初婚年龄均有显著的提前效应,而且对农村户籍居民的影响要高于城市户籍居民。     

Demographic significance of sterilization in three Indian states

Female sterilization has become one of the most widely used contraceptive methods in India since the introduction of family planning program. In this paper, an attempt is made to study the demographic significance of sterilization in three Indian states namely, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, and Kerala, using the National Family Health Survey, 1992–1993 (NFHS-I). The timing of sterilization and the impact of sterilization on fertility are discussed in this paper. Results reveal that the proportion of couples who sterilize before age 30 is higher in Andhra Pradesh, while the proportion of couples who accept sterilization within 10 years of marriage is higher in Kerala. Also in Kerala, the number of births averted due to sterilization remained high as compared to the other two states. The study also shows that a further reduction in fertility can be achieved in the state of Andhra Pradesh by increasing the use of temporary contraceptives.     

From Successful Family Planning to the Lowest of Low Fertility Levels: Taiwan's Dilemma

Since the implementation of family planning in the 1960s, Taiwan's fertility rate has rapidly decreased. This was praised as a family planning achievement. However, in the 21st century Taiwan has become one of the lowest of low fertility countries like European countries [ Kohler, H. P., Billari, F. C., & Ortega, J. A. (2002) . Population and Development Review , 28 (4), 641–80]. The government has begun to worry that these extremely low birthrates will result in rapid population aging and bring about other negative socio-economic effects. Thus, in its Mega Warmth Social Welfare Program (MWSWP) of 2006, the Taiwanese government targeted the issue of low birthrates. Based on secondary data analysis, we found that the reasons for rapid decrease in Taiwanese birthrates are: (i) a declining marriage rate; (ii) later marriage; (iii) changing attitudes towards child bearing; (iv) the burdens of child care; and (v) an increase in female labour participation rates. The MWSWP includes maternity leave benefits, parental leave benefits, a childcare subsidy system and early children education and care (ECEC). First, this article presents a chronological understanding of the demography in Taiwan. Second, we attempt to evaluate the reasons contributing to the low birthrates. The policy response to this is discussed next. Finally, the article provides a careful conclusion: that the extent to which these policies can significantly stop the population from declining requires further observation.     

Thailand's reproductive revolution

Thailand has achieved a remarkable population revolution in the past 15 years, resulting in a fertility decline of 44%, the 3rd greatest decline of the major developing countries. Thailand is quite distinct from either China or South Korea, the leaders in fertility decline. It has neither China's authoritarian power system to enforce population control nor the highly developed, Westernized outlook of South Korea. Instead it achieved its astounding fertility drop through a noncoercive family planning program operating within a context of rapid social change and a cultural setting. Thailand's drop in population growth has touched almost all segments of Thai society. The preferred number of children among couples married less than 5 years has dropped in both rural and urban families at almost exactly the same rate, from about 3.2 in 1969 to 2.3 in 1984. Religious groups represent the only substantial difference in family size preference; Moslem women married less than 5 years stated a desired average of 3.1 children versus 2.3 for Buddhist women. The direct case of the fertility drop is a national increase in contraceptive use. In 1984, 65% of Thai women reported using contraception. The Thai population, however, was ripe for using contraception when it became available due to 1) mass media creating a desire for consumer goods, 2) the increased costs of education to parents, 3) the willingness of parents to trade off "parent repayment" from many children for a few quality children, 4) couples' autonomy in fertility decision making, 5) the high status of women in Thailand, and 6) the fact that Buddhism poses no barriers to contraception. Current trends show no immediate sign of change.     

China’s Changing Family Structure and Adolescent Development

This paper examines the relationship between family structure and junior high school students’ educational and psychosocial development and its intermediate mechanisms. Our findings show, firstly, that family structure affects children’s development, and children living with both parents have better educational and psychosocial development than those without one or both parents. Secondly, family structure affects children’s development to some extent through the two mechanisms of family socioeconomic status and parental participation in education. Thirdly, fathers and mothers play different roles in children’s development. Mothers are more important to children’s educational development, while fathers are more important to their psychosocial development. In addition, the distribution of family structure shows marked group heterogeneity, and families lacking both parents tend to be groups with a lower socioeconomic status. Since adolescent development is closely related to the acquisition of socioeconomic status in adulthood, the negative impact of parental absence on children’s development should not be neglected by academics and policy researchers.     

家庭背景与教育：婚姻中地位交换的性别与时期差异

本文利用2018年“中国家庭追踪调查”（CFPS）数据,使用对数线性模型,分析了1978～2018年家庭背景与自身教育在择偶过程中地位交换的性别与时期差异。研究发现,在跨越出身阶层与自身教育地位的异质婚中,夫妻一方会利用自身的相对教育地位优势交换另一方的相对出身阶层优势,这支持了地位交换论。1978～1991年结婚的夫妻中,女性更多通过相对教育优势交换男性的相对出身优势。随着时间的推移,出身阶层与教育在择偶过程中的地位交换强度不断增强,但更多体现在男性通过自身相对教育优势交换女性相对出身优势的婚配模式上,而女性的这一婚配模式呈先降后升趋势。可见,随着时代变迁,家庭背景在女性的向上婚姻流动中扮演着越来越重要的角色。     

Family planning and the Malawian male

To curb the deleterious socioeconomic effects of rapid population growth, the Government of Malawi has adopted a National Child Spacing Program. Women who attend maternal health centers are counseled about the harmful effects of closely spaced childbearing, informed of contraceptive options, and urged to discuss family planning with their husband. This strategy fails to consider the control by Malawian men over women's reproductive capacities and family size decision making. If Malawi's child spacing program is to be successful in reducing fertility, the emphasis must be shifted to men. Needed is an educational campaign to convince men that large family size--currently considered a sign of virility--adversely affects the family's standard of living. Malawian men are more likely to be convinced by arguments based on economics than concerns about maternal-child health. For example, educational messages could focus on the inability of malnourished children to perform farm work, the higher incomes and ability to provide old age support of well-educated children, the high price of a large dwelling, and the debts incurred by providing food and clothing for many children. Specific target groups in need of such interventions include low-income skilled and semi-skilled urban workers, smallholder farmers, and small-scale businessmen. In rural areas, family planning messages can be incorporated into existing agricultural extension and functional literacy programs.     

北京市生育政策调整对出生人口规模的影响

在全面分析北京市户籍人口生育水平、育龄妇女孩次结构、独生子女比例、婚配模式、人口迁移和生育意愿的基础上,本文分析了北京生育政策调整对出生人口规模产生的影响。结果表明户籍人口放开单独对北京新增出生人口的影响非常小,2020年以前每年对北京市户籍人口出生规模的影响在1万-2万人左右,远远低于迁入人口规模的影响。     

父母的婚姻教育匹配与子女学业表现

本研究基于2015年中国教育追踪调查（CEPS）数据,以父母婚姻教育匹配构建的“新型家庭文化资本”为视角,探讨不同婚配模式下“共同养育联盟”的水平与新型家庭文化资本被激活的效率对子女学业表现影响的作用路径。研究表明,与低等教育同质婚家庭的子女相比,向上婚以及高等教育同质婚家庭的子女学业表现更好。其二,父母婚姻教育匹配对子女学业表现的影响存在教育差距效应,随着父母间教育跨层级的增加,向上婚家庭中子女学业表现的优势递增,向下婚家庭中子女学业表现的劣势进一步扩大。其三,父母婚姻教育匹配模式对学业的影响因子女性别而异,向上婚和高等教育同质婚减弱了男孩的学习劣势,向下婚扩大了男孩的学习劣势。最后,家庭中的共同养育联盟对子女学业表现的影响发挥了部分中介作用。向上婚家庭的父亲与母亲在教养分工中建立了更互补的关系,共同养育联盟水平较高,更有效地激活了新型家庭文化资本,促进子女的学业表现。“强强联合”的婚姻教育匹配虽然成为不平等再生产的“温床”,但是,通过建立高水平的共同养育联盟这一中介路径提高新型家庭文化资本被激活的效率,则可能减缓教育不平等的代际传递。     

Same‐Sex Marriage and Negative Externalities*

Objectives. Conventional theory regarding externalities and personal choices implies that in the absence of negative externalities, there is no economic rationale for government to regulate or ban those choices. We evaluate whether legally recognizing (or prohibiting) same‐sex marriage has any adverse impact on societal outcomes specifically related to “traditional family values.” Methods. Using data from 1990 to 2004 in the U.S. states, with statistical controls appropriate for the particular model, and with fixed effects, we test the claim of the Family Research Council that same‐sex marriage will have negative impacts on marriage, divorce, abortion rates, the proportion of children born to single women, and the percent of children in female‐headed households. Results. We find no statistically significant adverse effect from allowing gay marriage. Bans on gay marriage, when they are not overturned, appear to be associated with a lower abortion rate and a lower percentage of children in female‐headed households. However, allowing gay marriage also shows the same or stronger associations. Conclusions. The argument that same‐sex marriage poses a negative externality on society cannot be rationally held. Although many might believe that this conclusion is so obvious that it does not warrant testing, many politicians use this argument as a fact‐based rationale to legitimize bans on same‐sex marriage.     

Contraceptive utilization: profile of the Muslim Arab women in rural Israel

The contraceptive habits of the Arab population in rural Israel was explored by means of a cohort ( n =429) of rural Muslim women, with the aim to compose a profile of the women who practice modern contraception. Self-reported information revealed that only one third of the women apply modern contraceptive devices. Multivariate analysis showed the following independent variables to bear a contributory and predictive value with respect to use or non-use of modern contraceptive means by Muslim village women in Israel: degree of religiosity of the woman, male offspring, extent of modernity within the nuclear family, number of children, occupation of the husband, and adherence to traditional norms by the woman.     

Attitudes To Marriage Among Young Tertiary–Educated Women

This study explores the attitudes to marriage and child-bearing held by women graduates born 1957–62. It is argued that this is a group of women for whom economic and cultural pressures to enter marriage are low, due to changes in social structures and the availability of a feminist philosophy that provides an alternative value system to patriarchy. With extrinsic pressures to marry so reduced, what factors determine the marriage and family decisions that they make? Interviews with a small sample of these women provide some strong pointers. Marriage at an appropriate age and to an appropriate partner was seen as providing substantially more benefits than costs. Delaying marriage until personal identity had been achieved was considered very important, with independent living, work and overseas travel contributing to identity formation. Supportiveness and egalitarianism were considered crucial qualities in a spouse, and those who were married had tended to marry men who were as or more ambitious for their wives than for themselves. An overall attitude of entitlement-with-organisation emerged. The increase in socioeconomic differences among women-in-their-own-right is discussed.     

Occupational prestige and changing higher educational policy

This article examines the impact of higher education policy and family background on occupational prestige. It argues that changes in higher education policy have had a significant effect on the relative importance of educational attainment in determining occupational prestige, and that family background continues to have a significant effect on educational attainment and occupational prestige.The sample for this study is drawn from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics. The sample consists of white male household heads who were between 18 and 64 years of age in 1972. The sample was subdivided into three cohorts by age and each cohort was selected to correspond to a distinct era of higher educational policy. This study uses the following periods of higher education policy: (1) The era preceding World War II, (2) the era after World War II, essentially the period of the G.I. Bill, and (3) the era following passage of the National Defense Education Act.The results from this study indicate that educational attainment does have a smaller effect on occupational prestige for the youngest cohort. This result suggests that education per se is relatively less important when a larger share of the labor force has acquired greater years of schooling. Our results also show that family background factors tend to affect occupational prestige via educational attainment. Thus, educational attainment tends to be a significant transmission mechanism relating family background and occupational status. Therefore, the results of this study indicate that family background variables have important effects on labor-market success.     

Numbers of children looked after in England: a historical analysis

This paper is an analysis of the relationship between policy, practice and the rates of children looked after by local authorities in England. It examines the trends in the numbers of children looked after by local authorities in England over a period of approximately 40 years. The increase in children looked after in the decade after 1994 is shown to be the result of fewer children entering care, but those that do tend to stay longer. This two-part dynamic appears to have been the underlying determinant of the care population over a long period of time. The fact that time spent in care is such a key factor suggests that planning for children who are already looked after is a crucial determinant of the numbers in care. However, it is argued that poorly developed family support services limit current options for reducing the size of the care population. A range of effective family support services could potentially have an impact on the number of children in care in three ways: by helping to maintain more children within their families; by identifying those children who need care earlier; and by improving the chances of some children being successfully returned home.     

The status of women in rural India: a village study

This paper examines the status of rural Indian women and how their status has been affected by progressive legislation designed to remove previous inequalities. A socio-demographic survey of women and adolescent girls was conducted in a Maharashtrian village of 2100 people in 1975-76. The village economy was based on subsistence agriculture with 94% of females and 84% of males engaged in farming. Data were collected by means of participant observation and questionnaire interviews. Overall levels of education were low, with only 5% of females and 15% of males having any high school education. Over 50% of females had received no education, 28% of males. Inequalities between males and females persisted throughout all age groups but were less obvious at younger ages. 97% of women felt that boys should attend school beyond the primary level, 75% said that girls should. Many adolescent girls said they would like to continue their education but admitted that they would soon marry and advanced education was unnecessary. 62% of women favored modern medicine but 57% still felt that smallpox was a punishment from the gods; fewer educated women than illiterate women answered this way. Average age of marriage was 14.1 years; 69% of the women felt that girls should be married by age 16, but 70% believed that boys should not marry until age 18 so that they can complete their studies. 62% of women who had discussed family size with their husbands also approved of eating together and 55% felt that joint discussion was preferable. Only 25% felt that large families meant greater happiness and on the average 3.4 children (2 sons, 1.4 daughters) were preferred; over 75% said that they would exceed their ideal family size if they had borne only daughters. The local family planning program was approved by 90% of the women and use has increased from 13-43% from 1966-76. Low caste was related to low levels of education for women, but there is little difference in the number of children ever born; the disparity is mainly in regard to living children with mortality highest among lower castes. Age differences existed such as: 52% of the youngest group can read and write compared to only 14% of older women, age at marriage is rising, and older women had more communication with their husbands, but also had larger families. It was found in this study that: 1) attitudes were more modern than behavior, and 2) modern practices most practical to apply to their daily lives were more easily accepted. What is needed is a broad-based educational program to demonstrate current failures to observe the legislation favoring greater equality for women. Rural schools should help to transmit modern concepts by way of organizing school trips to outside areas. For these women, modern ideas must be proven relevant and acceptable within the village milieu. Also included is a list of social reforms and legislation affecting women's status in India from 1795-present.     

Out-of-home care among immigrant children in Sweden: a national cohort study

We used data from several national registers for ten entire birth cohorts ( n  > 1 million) to examine the representation of first generation immigrant children among first time entries into out-of-home care (foster or residential care) at ages 7–12 and 13–17. Logistic regression models were used to adjust results for socioeconomic background factors. Immigrant children were categorised in six groups relating to birth country/continent. Compared with Swedish-born peers, immigrant children from non-European countries had between two- and three-fold sex and birth-year adjusted odds for being placed in care for the first time at ages 7–12. After adjustments for five socioeconomic background variables, none of these overrisks remained. Instead there was a tendency towards immigrant background being associated with reduced risks, statistically significant for immigrant children born in non-Nordic European countries. Immigrant children had between two- and six-fold age and birth-year adjusted odds for entering care for the first time during adolescence. After adjusting the results for socioeconomic background, only immigrant children born in Sub-Saharan Africa or in Asia outside the Middle East had significant overrisks for care entries at ages 13–17 (odds ratio = 1.5).     

Paved with Good Intentions: The Pathway to Adoption and the Costs of Delay

The thrust of UK adoption policy is to promote adoption as thebest route to a stable family life for children in the caresystem unable to return to their birth families. However, whatwe know about outcomes for adopted children comes mainly fromstudies that report on children already in placement. This articlereports on the findings of a study that examined the outcomesof a complete sample of 130 older looked after children whohad all been the subject of an adoption best interest decision.Many were successfully placed but, of those who were not, thestudy was able to identify factors that influenced placementoutcome. The negative impact on placement outcomes and the increasedfinancial costs of poor assessment and delays in planning andaction are highlighted in this paper. The reasons why delaysoccurred, the costs of those delays and the impact on childoutcomes lend support to recent government attempts to reducedelay by the introduction of timescales into the adoption process.     

多代流动效应：来自中国的证据

多代流动是社会流动中的重要议题。本文利用中国劳动力调查2012年数据,检验了不同世代社会流动的多代效应模式。研究发现,1980年以前出生的世代累积性的优势或劣势主要表现在两代之间,多代的效应并不明显;但随着市场经济的确立,累积性不平等的效应从两代之间扩展到三代之间,即在控制了父代的阶层地位后,祖代-孙代的影响效应仍显著存在,祖代职业阶层越高,孙代进入高职业阶层的可能性越大。此外,研究发现教育是个体实现向上流动的重要变量,但教育获得本身受家庭背景的影响。文章从实证和理论两方面的论述有助于加深对中国社会流动与代际不平等的理解。     

The relationship between ethnicity and fertility in New Zealand

While there is a global shift towards smaller families, some groups maintain relatively high fertility rates. The 2013 New Zealand census data were used to investigate the nature of fertility between ethnicities in New Zealand. The NZ Deprivation Index 2013 was used as a measure of socioeconomic status to determine the relationships with fertility. The results mirror research outside of New Zealand in that socioeconomic status is inversely correlated to fertility. Using crude average fertility rates, sole-ethnicity Pasifika and Māori ethnic groups still have substantially higher fertility than sole-ethnicity Europeans and Asians ethnic groups, even when simultaneously accounting for age, socioeconomic status, education, and religious affiliation. Christians have more children than individuals reportedly without any religion, and fertility rates drop on average for mothers who have higher formal qualifications. Our findings suggest that cultural, or other ethnic-specific factors differentially affect fertility for Māori, Pasifika, New Zealand European, and Asians as aggregated ethnic categories, respectively.