The Effects of Divorce on Children: Married and Divorced Parents' Perspectives

Three hypotheses, derived from the social psychology literature, regarding the impact of marital status history on parents' attitudes toward the impact of divorce on children were examined. Married parents (n = 118) were expected to report more negative effects of divorce on children than divorced parents (n = 114); mothers and fathers whose own parents remained married were expected to rate the impact of divorce more negatively than mothers and fathers whose parents had divorced; and, divorced parents who initiated their own divorce were expected to report fewer negative effects of divorce on children than parents who did not initiate divorce. All three hypotheses were supported, extending the self- and vested-interest research to the divorce literature.     

Just the Two of Us? How Parents Influence Adult Children's Marital Quality

We work from a life-course perspective to explore how relationships with parents affect adult children's marital quality. We further ask whether the effects of parents on adult children's marital quality depend on the adult child's gender, age, marital duration, and childhood family experiences. Growth-curve analysis of national, longitudinal data (Americans' Changing Lives) indicated that relationships with fathers (n = 336) and mothers (n = 520) differentially affected the marital quality of adult children over time. Findings suggest that the effects of the parent - adult child relationship on adult children's marriages depend on age, marital duration, and levels of family stress experienced in childhood.     

Affection and conflict in marital and parent-child relationships

In this study, we examined affection and conflict in marital and parent-child relationships, as reported by mothers, fathers, and 9- and 10-year-old children in a community sample of 87 families. Affection and conflict were inversely related within relationships, with mixed findings across relationships. Most reports showed an association between marital and parent-child conflict as well as between marital and parent-child affection. According to fathers, however, the association between marital affection and father-child affection is moderated by marital conflict. Clinical implications of the associations between positive and negative dimensions of family interaction and of the links between marital and parent-child relations are discussed.     

The Interactive Effects of Marital Conflict and Divorce on Parent – Adult Children's Relationships

This study examines main effect and interactive models of the relations between marital conflict, divorce, and parent – adult child relationships and gender differences in these relations. Data were drawn from a longitudinal study of a community sample (N = 585). Parental marital conflict and divorce were measured from age 5 through age 17 years. Mother‐child and father‐child relationship quality at age 22 years was assessed in terms of closeness‐support and conflict‐control. Results indicated that both marital conflict and divorce are associated with poorer quality parent – adult child relationships. Divorce moderated the link between marital conflict and subsequent negativity in mother‐child relationships, with the estimated effects being stronger in continuously married families than in divorced families, especially for women.     

Feeling Caught Between Parents: Adult Children's Relations With Parents and Subjective Well‐Being

Research on divorce has found that adolescents’ feelings of being caught between parents are linked to internalizing problems and weak parent‐child relationships. The present study estimates the effects of marital discord, as well as divorce, on young adult offspring's feelings of being caught in the middle (N =632). Children with parents in high‐conflict marriages were more likely than other children to feel caught between parents. These feelings were associated with lower subjective well‐being and poorer quality parent‐child relationships. Offspring with divorced parents were no more likely than offspring with continuously married parents in low‐conflict relationships to report feeling caught. Feelings of being caught appeared to fade in the decade following parental divorce. These results suggest that, unlike children of divorce, children with parents in conflicted marriages (who do not divorce) may be unable to escape from their parents’ marital problems—even into adulthood.     

Relationships Between (Step)Parents and Adult (Step)Children: Explaining Influences on Life Satisfaction and Marital Quality

The purpose of this study was to examine important influences of adult (step)children’s relationships with their biological fathers, biological mothers, and resident stepparents on their life satisfaction and marital quality and the moderating role of stepparent gender. The sample (N = 215) was from Wave 3 of the National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH). Results illustrate that (a) biological mothers and stepparents positively influenced life satisfaction among adult (step)children regardless of stepfamily type; and (b) that the influence of parent–child relationship quality on the adult child’s marital quality did vary as a function of stepfamily type. Specifically, there was a positive link between current stepmother–child relationship quality and the focal child’s current marital quality. The opposite link was found for those reared in stepfather households.     

Parents' Marital Status,Father-Daughter Intimacy and Young Adult Females' Dating Relationships

Abstract

The affective relationships of young adult females and their fathers were investigated for effects on dating relationships, dating anxiety, and interpersonal trust. Ninety-six college females, 66 with married parents and 25 with divorced parents, completed questionnaires about father-daughter intimacy, dating satisfaction, dating anxiety, and; trust. It was hypothesized that females with divorced vs. married parents, and females scoring lower on the intimacy scale, regardless of family structure, would experience less father-daughter intimacy, lower dating satisfaction and trust, and higher dating anxiety. Multivariate analysis of variance showed that females with divorced vs. married parents experienced significantly less intimacy with their fathers but similar levels of trust, anxiety, and satisfaction. Comparisons of females high and low in father-daughter intimacy showed no differences in trust, anxiety, or dating satisfaction. The relative importance of parents' marital status versus other factors relevant to divorce (e.g., intimacy, presence of a stepfather) will be discussed.     

Comparison of Role Demands,Relationships, and Child Functioning in Single-Mother,Single-Father,and Intact Families

Abstract

Numerous studies have examined the impact of divorce on parents and children, but most of these studies have been restricted to single-mother families. This study compared differences in role demands, relationships, and child functioning using the responses of parents and children in 30 single-mother, 30 single-father, and 30 intact families. Single fathers had better resources than single mothers, more positive parenting than married fathers, and relied more on friends than the married parents. Single mothers had less education, less prestigious jobs, lower incomes, and more economic strain than the other parents. They also had fewer social resources and more difficulty than married parents with the parenting role. Despite these disadvantages of single mother families, children in these families were no different than children in other families on most measures of well-being. The only problem that was identified in the functioning of children from single-parent families was with their behavior. These findings can be used to develop strategies to reduce risks and enhance the existing resources and strengths of single-parent families.     

Parental Predivorce Relations and Offspring Postdivorce Well‐Being

This 2‐part study uses national longitudinal interview data from parents and their adult children to examine the way in which predivorce marital conflict influences the impact of divorce on children. In the 1st study, we find that the dissolution of low‐conflict marriages appears to have negative effects on offspring's lives, whereas the dissolution of high‐conflict marriages appears to have beneficial effects. The dissolution of low‐conflict marriages is associated with the quality of children's intimate relationships, social support from friends and relatives, and general psychological well‐being. The 2nd study considers how parents in low‐conflict marriages that end in divorce differ from other parents before divorce. We find that low‐conflict parents who divorce are less integrated into the community, have fewer impediments to divorce, have more favorable attitudes toward divorce, are more predisposed to engage in risky behavior, and are less likely to have experienced a parental divorce.     

Marital and Cohabitation Dissolution and Parental Depressive Symptoms in Fragile Families

The consequences of divorce are pronounced for parents of young children, and cohabitation dissolution is increasing in this population and has important implications. The mental health consequences of union dissolution were examined, by union type and parental gender, using the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (n= 1,998 for mothers and 1,764 for fathers). Overall, cohabitation and marital dissolution were both associated with increased maternal and paternal depressive symptoms, though for married mothers, depressive symptoms returned to predissolution levels with time. Difference‐in‐difference estimates indicated no differences in the magnitude of the increase in depressive symptoms by type of dissolution, though pooled difference models suggested that married fathers increased in depressive symptoms more than cohabiting fathers. Potential time‐variant mediators did not account for these associations, though greater family chaos was associated with increased maternal depressive symptoms, and decreased social support and father–child contact were associated with increased paternal depressive symptoms.     

Interparental Incongruence in Differential Treatment of Adolescent Siblings: Links With Marital Quality

This study examined longitudinal links between incongruence in mothers’ versus fathers’ differential treatment of adolescent‐age siblings and parents’ marital quality. Multilevel models including 200 families, over four waves, spaced across 6 years tested whether youth perceptions of incongruence in differential intimacy and conflict predicted trajectories of mothers’ and fathers’ reports of marital conflict and satisfaction and vice versa. Analyses showed that changes in interparental incongruence covaried longitudinally with changes in marital quality and that these linkages became stronger over time. These results extend previous cross‐sectional research with younger children and are consistent with theories regarding family alliances and coparenting. Discussion focuses on the reciprocal relations between incongruence in parenting and marital quality as an important aspect of family systems.     

Children's Behavior Problems in Single-Parent and Married-Parent Families

Abstract

A model integrating prevailing perspectives on children's functioning following divorce was used to predict children's behavior problems. The data were collected from 30 custodial mothers, 30 custodial fathers, and 30 married parents with children 6 to 10 years of age, using face-to-face interviews and standardized questionnaires. Results using path analysis indicated that marital status and parental control had significant direct effects on children's behavior problems. Sex of parent, economic strain, co-parental conflict, coping with roles, and parenting indirectly influenced children's behavior through parental control. The findings suggest that the pressures inherent in raising a child alone, combined with too few resources for coping with role demands, are disruptive to both parenting and parental control, and that children in single-parent families appear to respond to these deficits with disruptive behaviors. Implications for family practice and policy are discussed.     

Implications of work pressure and supervisor support for fathers’, mothers’ and adolescents’ relationships and well-being in dual-earner families

The present study investigates the implications of work pressure and supervisor support for individual psychosocial functioning, marital and parent–adolescent relationships. We examined the effects of work pressure and supervisor support separately for mothers and fathers and their adolescent children (M=17.33 years) in 156 white working- and middle-class, dual-earner families. Results revealed when husbands reported high work pressure and low supervisor support, both parents reported higher levels of depressive symptoms. When wives were in the high pressure/low support group, they reported lower levels of marital love, and both spouses reported less marital satisfaction. When either parent was in the high pressure/low support group, both parents reported higher levels of role overload, and families experienced more conflict and less intimacy in their relationships with their children. Their children also reported higher levels of depressive symptoms. Results associated with parent and child depressive symptoms, however, varied by parent and child sex.     

Cognitive and Behavioral Changes in Children Resulting from Parental Divorce and Consequent Environmental Changes

Operationalizing divorce as environmental change helps to understand the processes leading to the development of psychopathology in some children of divorce. Children living with their divorced mothers and children living with their married, natural parents completed change measures (Recent Life Changes Questionnaire, Environmental Change Questionnaire), a behavior checklist (Child Behavior Checklist) and a cognitive/perceptual characteristics measure (Semantic Differential). Significant F-ratios were obtained for the main effects of parent marital status and extent of environmental change and for the interactions of marital status with environmental change and marital status with age at divorce. Processes leading to child psychopathology were identified as types of changes, changes in parent-child relations and increased demands on the custodial parent. Conceptualizing divorce as environmental change has significant implications for the development of primary prevention programs for this population of children.     

Quantity and Quality: A More Nuanced Look at the Association Between Family Work and Marital Well-Being

The current study uses family systems and gender theories to look at three forms of family work (housework, emotion work, and child care) and their association with marital satisfaction and burnout. Data were taken from a sample of dual-earner mothers and fathers parenting preschool-age children. First, relationships between the quantity of family work performed and marital well-being were established. Then, measures related to the perceived “quality” of child care provided by a spouse (childcare appraisals and, for wives, maternal gatekeeping) were added to the statistical model. Overall, emotion work was the most influential predictor of women’s marital well-being. For fathers, the perceived quality of care provided by mothers was most significant for marital well-being.     

Negative Parental Disclosures as Mediators of Coparental Communication and Relational Outcomes in Parent-Child Relationships

This study explored the associations among perceptions of coparental communication (i.e., supportive and antagonistic), parents’ negative disclosures, and relational outcomes in parent-child relationships (i.e., closeness and satisfaction). Participants included 241 young adult children who completed online surveys. Results indicate that parents’ negative disclosures to their children mediated the associations between both dimensions of coparental communication and both relational outcomes. Indirect effects of supportive and antagonistic coparental communication through mothers’ negative disclosures emerged for children’s closeness with mothers, but not satisfaction. Indirect effects of both forms of coparental communication through mothers’ negative disclosures also emerged for children’s closeness and satisfaction with fathers. Ultimately, the results underscore the importance of disclosure as an explanatory mechanism for the associations between coparental communication patterns and relational quality in parent-child relationships.     

How Childhood Circumstances Moderate the Long‐Term Impact of Divorce on Father–Child Relationships

Using retrospective survey data collected in the Netherlands in 2012, the author examined how childhood circumstances moderate the effect of an early parental divorce on relationships between fathers and adult children. Using adult children's reports about the frequency of contact and the quality of the relationship, he found strong negative effects of parental divorce. These effects are moderated by 3 childhood conditions. The more fathers were involved in childrearing during marriage, the less negative the divorce effect on father–child relationships. Father's resources also moderated the effect, with a smaller divorce effect for more highly educated fathers. Finally, high levels of interparental conflict reduce the impact of divorce as well, generalizing the stress relief effect to a new outcome. In general, the study shows that the impact of divorce is heterogeneous; that childhood circumstances play an important role in this; and that, under specific conditions, there is virtually no negative effect of parental divorce.     

Consequences of Parental Divorce for Adult Children’s Support of Their Frail Parents

Using three waves of data from the Health and Retirement Study, I examined the association of parental divorce and remarriage with the odds that biological, adult children give personal care and financial assistance to their frail parents. The analysis included 5,099 adult children in the mother sample and 4,029 children in the father sample. Results indicate that adult children of divorced parents are just as likely as adult children of widowed parents to give care and money to their mothers, but the former are less likely than the latter to care for their fathers. The findings suggest that divorced fathers are prone to be the population most in need of formal support in old age.     

Coparenting in Families of Mexican Descent: Exploring Stability,Antecedents, and Typologies

In this prospective study, we examined coparenting in families of Mexican descent with children in Head Start programs. A sample of 57 two-parent families participated in in-home interviews 12 months apart. Evaluations of parental agreement on child-rearing practices, perceptions of partner's involvement, and joint decision making were moderately stable over 1 year. Marital quality assessed 12 months earlier significantly predicted maternal reports of coparenting, but fewer antecedents were revealed for fathers. Few associations emerged between children with difficult temperaments and coparenting. Cluster analysis identified three types of coparenting dyads: both parents reported average to above average coparenting, mothers reported below average and fathers were average or above, and fathers were below and mothers were average or above. The “equal” cluster was associated with more positive reports of martial quality and family emotional expressivity. Clusters in which one parent reported less coparenting were associated with lower marital quality.