Sibling Relationships in Middle and Older Adulthood

Abstract

Research on various aspects of the sibling relationship in adulthood, with a focus on middle and older adulthood, will be reviewed. Attachment theory, which has often been utilized to explain relationships among siblings, will be discussed. Equity theory, as it relates to siblings' roles as caregivers, will also be examined. Closeness among siblings, social support, elderly siblings, and death of a sibling are among the specific topics that will be addressed. A number of factors contributing to the quality of the sibling relationship will also be considered. These include the gender and marital status of the siblings. Finally, future research ideas concerning adult siblings will be suggested.     

A Phenomenological Examination of Sibling Relationships in Emerging Adulthood

A growing area of research has focused on the role played by siblings throughout the life span. However, limited work has been conducted on the sibling relationship dynamics of emerging adults specifically using qualitative methods. The current study is a phenomenological examination of the nature of sibling relationships in emerging adults using a sample of 52 students, 36 women and 16 men, between ages 18 and 23 years (M = 19.85, SD = 1.16) from a large northeastern U.S. state university. Participants were interviewed using semistructured questions about various aspects of family environment. Results were analyzed using the phenomenological method. Themes emanating from the interviews were as follows: (1) change in the relationship due to time and transitions, (2) variability due to family constellation, (3) difficulties due to divorce and blended families, (4) older sibling blame and responsibility, (5) parental punishment during sibling dispute and disengagement as the siblings aged, and (6) differences between parents in sibling dispute intervention. Findings highlight the diversity in experiences with siblings and the transitory nature of this relationship during the first year of college.     

Sibling dynamics in adulthood: a qualitative analysis

Abstract

Research on sibling dynamics throughout the life span has gradually increased over the past several years. However, limited work has been conducted on the sibling relationship dynamics of adults particularly using qualitative methods. The current study is a phenomenological examination of the nature of sibling relationships in adults using a sample of forty adults, 24 females and 16 males, between the ages 29 and 70 (M?=?50.55, SD = 12.03) from a large Northeastern city in the United States. Participants were interviewed using semi-structured questions about past and current sibling relationship dynamics. Results were analyzed using the phenomenological method. Themes emanating from the interviews included: (1) impact of age, gender, and geography on the relationship, (2) topology of support provided by siblings, (3) content of conversations/information sharing and taboo items, (4) contact frequency and method of contact (phone, electronic), (5) factors contributing to sibling closeness, and (6) negative aspects of the relationship. Findings highlight the continued and unique importance of this bond even as adult are occupied with their daily life and the diversity found in sibling dynamics during adulthood.     

Continuity and Change in the Family System Across the Transition from Adolescence to Emerging Adulthood

As adolescents move into emerging adulthood, their social networks shift toward a focus on peers and romantic partners, yet parents and siblings remain important sources of support. The present review takes a family systems approach to integrate the growing body of literature examining longitudinal continuity and change in both positive (e.g., intimacy, support) and negative (e.g., conflict, rivalry) qualities of parent–child and sibling relationships as adolescents transition to emerging adulthood. In general, contact with family members decreases, yet the quality of family relationships appears to improve or, at the very least, stabilize across this transition. These pathways are interpreted within the lens of several prominent theories, and a discussion of the limitations of the current literature and ideas for future research are presented.     

“My nest is full:” Intergenerational relationships at midlife

Incorporating a life course perspective, this qualitative study used focus groups to explore the experiences of midlife adults who were simultaneously providing support to emerging adult children and aging parents. Results indicated that adults situated in middle generations held beliefs that endorsed family-based responsibility to both younger and older members. Parents gladly supported children despite their longer transition to adulthood. Often unanticipated but accepted, provisions of care to aging parents were experienced with ambivalence — a joy and a burden. The transition of their parents to greater dependence helped participants gain insights into the terrain of late life and encouraged reflections about the intersection of aging, independence, and family responsibility. Participants expressed intentions to preserve their own independence and spare their children of caregiving burdens through self-directed actions. Implications focused on negotiations of family relationships around issues of independence and family responsibilities as a way to reduce intergenerational ambivalence.     

Negotiating Inequality Among Adult Siblings: Two Case Studies

Qualitative instrumental case study analysis of adult siblings from 2 families explores how socioeconomic inequality among them affects their relationships to one another. Eight middle‐aged siblings’ observations of childhood, parental expectations, work and family history, lifestyle, and current sibling ties indicate that childhood interdependence, parallel parental treatment, similar intergenerational mobility, greater success of the younger rather than older siblings, and economic success due to other than individual effort facilitate smoother negotiations of material inequality and enhance the negotiation of sibling relationships as important sources of support. These new insights on negotiating sibling ties over time are related to various forms of capital, a life course perspective, and ambivalence, and point to fresh avenues for future research and theory.     

“I Am Becoming More and More Like My Eldest Brother!”: The Relationship Between Older Siblings,Adolescent Gambling Severity,and the Attenuating Role of Parents in a Large-Scale Nationally Representative Survey Study

The present study examined the association between having older siblings who gamble and adolescent at-risk/problem gambling and how parents (i.e., parental knowledge of their whereabouts) and peers might moderate such effects. Data were drawn from the ESPAD^®Italia2012 survey (European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs) comprising a nationally representative Italian sample of adolescents. The analysis was carried out on a subsample of 10,063 Italian students aged 15–19 years (average age = 17.10; 55 % girls) who had at least one older sibling and who had gambled at some point in their lives. Respondents’ problem gambling severity, older gambler sibling, gambler peers, parental knowledge, and socio-demographic characteristics were individually assessed. Multinomial logistic regression analyses including two- and three-way interactions were conducted. The odds of being an at-risk/problem gambler were higher among high school students with older siblings that gambled and those with peers who gambled. Higher parental knowledge (of who the adolescent was with and where they were in their leisure time) was associated with lower rates of at-risk/problem gambling. There was also an interaction between gamblers with older siblings and parental knowledge. The combination of having siblings who gambled and a greater level of parental knowledge was associated with lower levels of problem gambling. The present study confirmed the occurrence of social risk processes (older siblings and peers who gambled) and demonstrated that gambling among older siblings and peers represents an important contextual factor for increased at-risk/problem gambling. However, parental knowledge appears to be sufficient to counterbalance the influence of older siblings.     

Direct and Moderating Effects of Social Affordances on School Involvement and Delinquency Among Young Adolescents

Using social control theory and attachment theory as guides, this study examined how qualities of young adolescents' social relationships (i.e., mother, sibling, and friend) and dynamic interactions among characteristics of those relationships are associated with school involvement and delinquency. The participants included older siblings (M age=14.3), younger siblings (M age=11.6), and their mothers from 434 families who completed web‐based surveys. Results were largely consistent with tenets of social control theory and attachment theory. Young adolescents' social relationships mostly worked in additive ways, but sometimes in compensatory ways for older siblings, to promote positive adjustment. The results suggest that young adolescents' social relationships may be differently associated with adjustment depending on birth order or developmental stage.     

Intergenerational Solidarity and Support Between Adult Siblings

Using a Dutch national sample containing 1,259 triads (two siblings, one parent), we examined whether practical support and emotional support between siblings are enhanced by intergenerational solidarity and how this differs for brothers and sisters. Sibling support was affected by sibling dyad characteristics and by the relationship with the parent. Having a poor relationship and low contact frequency with the parent enhances sibling emotional support, pointing to a compensating mechanism, which is stronger among brothers. Sibling support is also positively related to parental support, suggesting a reinforcing mechanism, especially among sisters. The results contribute new information about influences on sibling support in adulthood and demonstrate the value of including family context variables in research on specific family relationships.     

Predictors of the Characteristics of Parent-Adult Child Relationships and Adult Child Functioning in a College Student Sample

Abstract

The responses of college student participants who were in the process of transitioning through emerging adulthood were examined so that the relationships among the characteristics of their families, their relationships with their parents, the perceptions that they hold currently about their parents, and their current functioning could be described. Results of this study suggested that particular characteristics of families are related highly to characteristics of the parent-adult child relationship during emerging adulthood. Further, the findings of this study suggested that different outcomes for adult children during emerging adulthood were predicted by characteristics of the parent-adult child relationship. Such findings may allow clinicians to remediate poor relationships and to encourage more fulfilling relationships between adult children and their parents.     

Where You Lead,I Will Follow: Exploring Sibling Similarity in Brain and Behavior During Risky Decision Making

This exploratory study examined whether social learning increases similarity in adolescent siblings’ behavior and neural patterns during risky decision making. Participants included 86 adolescents (43 sibling dyads; younger siblings: M_age = 12.2 years; 22 females; older siblings: M_age = 14.6 years; 20 females) who completed questionnaires, and a decision‐making task during an fMRI scan. Younger siblings became more similar to their older siblings’ risky decision making after observing their older sibling take risks). Younger siblings who reported greater modeling of their older sibling, and less differentiation from them, showed increased neural similarity to their older siblings in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and the right anterior insula and ventral striatum, respectively. These findings highlight siblings as salient social agents in how adolescents process risky decision making.     

Changes in Parent,Sibling, and Peer Support During the Transition to Young Adulthood

Longitudinal trajectories of parent, sibling, and peer support during the transition to young adulthood were compared among 600 participants (51.1% female) from Asian, European, and Latin American backgrounds. Participants completed questionnaires at 12th grade, 2 and 4 years after high school. Results indicated that parent support increased across this period for participants from European backgrounds but remained stable for participants from Asian and Latin American backgrounds. Peer and sibling support remained relatively stable. Supports had specific implications for self‐esteem and depressive mood. On average, young adults with higher levels of support reported greater expectations to reciprocate support within the family. Together, these findings highlight the changing dynamics of family and friends during the transition to young adulthood.     

Siblings as Providers of Support and Care during Middle Childhood: Children's Perceptions

This article describes some of the findings of a study undertaken to seek the views of 69 Scottish primary school children of their sisters and brothers. The study found that siblings were perceived to be a significant source of support and help to the children. Sibling support was particularly important to children with few other supportive relationships. Sibling caretaking which was viewed primarily positively both by the caretaking and looked after children, was found to be a common experience among the nine to 12–year-old children. Negative consequences of sibling caretaking included annoying, domination and abuse by siblings. Although over a quarter of the children's siblings were not living in the Same household, the majority of children perceived siblings to hold a special importance in their lives. Issues raised for parents and professionals concern the maintenance of relationships between siblings who do not live together; how to enhance the supportive aspects of sibling relationships, while offering protection against the negative aspects of sibling dichotomy; and facing the reality of sibling caretaking. Much more needs to be known about children's everyday experiences of growing up with their sisters and brothers, if we are to understand more fully the complexities of sibling relationships.     

Redressing Inequity in Parent Care Among Siblings

When inequities occur in the division of labor among adult siblings caring for older parents, conflict may result. This paper uses equity theory as a framework for understanding the processes used by siblings to rectify imbalances in their parental responsibilities. The study is based on a sample of 40 focus group participants who described caregiving relationships among siblings. Consistent with equity theory, these participants used two approaches to redress inequities in their sibling caregiving relationships: requesting behavioral changes from siblings and making cognitive changes. The findings suggest that these two approaches can result in more perceived equity but may also lead to even greater perceived inequity and distress.     

Predictors of Heterosexual Siblings’ Acceptance of Their Lesbian Sister or Gay Brother

Research has shown that lesbian and gay (LG) individuals are coming out not only to their parents, but also to their siblings. Eighty percent of individuals in the United States are raised with one or more siblings; however, researchers have frequently underestimated the importance of the sibling bond. This study examined potential correlates of heterosexual siblings’ acceptance of their LG sister or brother using an online survey format (N = 189). In addition, psychometric properties for the Acceptance of Sibling Sexual Orientation Scale are provided. Results revealed that greater sibling relationship quality in adulthood, more contact with LG individuals, greater knowledge of LG communities, more support for LG civil rights, and various demographics (being female, having higher educational levels, not having an orthodox/fundamentalist religious orientation, less church attendance, and more liberal political ideology) are related to heterosexual siblings’ acceptance of their LG sister or brother. However, when these variables were examined together in a regression model, only sibling relationship in adulthood, contact with LG individuals, support for LG civil rights, and religious attendance were significant unique predictors of acceptance.     

Sibling Socialization of Competence in Rural,Single‐Parent African American Families

Older siblings' contributions to younger siblings' competence net of parenting processes were examined with 152 pairs of first‐born (M= 11.7 years) and second‐born (M= 9.2 years) siblings in rural, single‐parent African American families. The possible moderational effect of sibling conflict on the association between older and younger siblings' competence was also examined. Mothers reported their parenting practices, teachers assessed siblings' competence, and older siblings reported sibling conflict levels. Structural equation modeling indicated that parenting was linked with older siblings' competence, which in turn was linked with competence among younger siblings. Hierarchical multiple regression revealed that older and younger siblings' competencies were linked when sibling relationships included low levels of conflict.     

‘I couldn’t just entirely be her sister’: the relational and social policy implications of care between young adult siblings with and without disabilities

Research has commonly explored siblings of people with disabilities’ roles in care for their brothers or sisters with disabilities. Social policy has also commonly framed young adult siblings of people with disabilities as ‘young carers’. However, there has been less consideration of the implications of care for the relationship shared between young adult siblings with and without disabilities and of what this may mean for social policy. What do different types of care mean for sibling relationships? What are the relational and social policy implications of care between siblings? Drawing on a qualitative study of 25 siblings with disabilities and 21 siblings without disabilities aged 15–29, this article explores how young adult siblings perceive, talk and act with regard to the different types of care enacted between them. The article identifies how, during young adulthood, some types of care can endanger siblings’ capacity to feel like siblings and discusses ways that young adult siblings talk and act in order to – as best they can – keep their role within the bounds of a normative sibling relationship. The findings are discussed in light of implications for social policy, particularly with regard to seeing siblings of people with disabilities as ‘young carers’.     

The Nature and Correlates of Sibling Influence in Two‐Parent African American Families

Guided by research and theory on sibling similarities and differences, this study explored the nature and correlates of 2 processes of sibling influence—social learning and sibling differentiation—during adolescence. Participants included 2 adolescent‐age siblings (M = 16.29 years for older siblings and M = 12.59 years for younger siblings, respectively) from 166 two‐parent African American families. Significant nonlinear associations between these two influence dynamics and some sibling relationship qualities were discovered. For sibling differentiation, but not social learning, these links were further moderated by gender composition of the sibling dyad. Additional analyses revealed that youths' reports of social learning were generally linked to smaller differences between siblings, whereas differentiation processes were linked to greater differences in siblings' individual characteristics.     

Embodying and enacting disability as siblings: experiencing disability in relationships between young adult siblings with and without disabilities

Abstract

Where one sibling has a disability, research has examined the role of disability in sibling relationships; however, the majority has reflected a normative understanding of sibling relationships and a deficit understanding of disability. Reacting to this history, this paper draws on the concepts of embodiment (absorption of bodily experience into self/identity) and enactment (performance of self/identity) to provide a new way of understanding the role of disability in sibling relationships. Using data from an Australian study of young adult siblings with and without disabilities, the paper discusses how disability is embodied and enacted in: how siblings engage in supportive and conflictual talk and everyday chat with each other; how they enact recreation and seek connection with each other; and how they strive to understand and experience their emotions about each other. The paper ends by discussing how embodiment and enactment allow a clearer understanding of disability in sibling relationships, which may be empowering for siblings.     

Linkages Between Parents’ Differential Treatment,Youth Depressive Symptoms,and Sibling Relationships

We tested social comparison predictions about cross‐sectional and longitudinal associations between parents’ differential treatment of siblings and both youth depressive symptoms and sibling relationship qualities from middle childhood to late adolescence, controlling for dyadic parent‐child relationships and siblings’ ratings of parents’ fairness. Participants were parents and first‐ and second‐borns (M= 11.8 and 9.2 years old at Year 1) from 201 White, middle/working‐class families. Three‐level models revealed both cross‐sectional and longitudinal linkages between differential treatment and outcomes. For example, youth whose parent‐child relationships decreased in warmth relative to those of their sibling reported increases in depressive symptoms and decreases in sibling warmth. Gender and age moderated differential treatment‐depressive symptoms associations; birth order moderated differential treatment‐sibling relationship associations.