The Race and Class Privilege of Motherhood: TheNew York Times Presentations of Pregnant Drug‐Using Women1

Prior research has examined race and class bias embedded in media presentations of pregnant drug users; however, this past research is limited in identifying biases because it focuses on single substances—primarily crack cocaine. I build on this work by conducting a comparative analysis of more than 15 years worth of New York Times articles on three drugs (crack cocaine, alcohol, and tobacco) used during pregnancy. These three drugs have varying levels of deleterious effects on fetal development and infant health, as well as varying levels of use by poor and minority women. Because of this variation, I am able to assess whether media coverage of pregnant drug‐using women is proportional to the documented adverse consequences of specific drugs or, rather, whether media coverage is higher and more negative for poor and minority pregnant women regardless of the degree of adverse health consequences associated with the specific drug used. Through this analysis, I demonstrate that the prevalence and framing of news stories about pregnant drug‐using women has little to do with protecting the health of children. Rather, concern for children is a rhetorical tool used to define poor and minority women as bad mothers and blame them for contemporary changes in families.     

The other side: Pro‐cannabis physicians dispute SG advisory

Last week (see ADAW, Sept. 9), we wrote about the advisory from U.S. Surgeon General Jerome Adams, M.D., recommending against marijuana use by pregnant women or adolescents ( https://www.hhs.gov/surgeongeneral/reports‐and‐publications/addiction‐and‐substance‐misuse/advisory‐on‐marijuana‐use‐and‐developing‐brain/index.html ).     

Good news in NSDUH: New heroin use down

New users of heroin were down in 2017 from the previous year, according to the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) released Sept. 14. The decline is dramatic: from 170,000 new heroin users in 2016, to 81,000 in 2017. But there are concerns about increasing cocaine and methamphetamine use, a continuing increase in widespread use of marijuana, and increased substance use in the “transitional‐age” (18–25‐year‐olds) population and pregnant women.     

Family Welfare Effort,Total Fertility,and In Vitro Fertilization: Explaining the Israeli Anomaly

The theory of family welfare effort is a leading macro‐sociological explanation of variation in human fertility. It holds that states which provide universally available, inexpensive, high‐quality day care, generous parental leave, and flexible work schedules lower the opportunity cost of motherhood. They thus enable women, especially those in lower socioeconomic strata, to have the number of babies they want. A considerable body of research supports this theory. However, it is based almost exclusively on analyses of Western European and North American countries. This paper examines the Israeli case because Israel's total fertility rate is anomalously high given its family welfare effort. Based on a review of the relevant literature and a reanalysis of data from various published sources, it explains the country's unusually high total fertility rate as the product of (1) religious and nationalistic sentiment that is heightened by the Jewish population's perception of a demographic threat in the form of a burgeoning Palestinian population and (2) the state's resulting support for pro‐natal policies, including the world's most extensive in vitro fertilization (IVF) system. The paper also suggests that Israel's IVF policy may not be in harmony with the interests of many women insofar as even women with an extremely low likelihood of becoming pregnant are encouraged to undergo the often lengthy, emotionally and physically painful, and risky process of IVF.     

Policy and the Pregnant Body at Work: Strategies of Secrecy,Silence and Supra‐performance

This article considers how women manage their pregnant bodies at work. Through netnographic research and drawing upon feminist discussions of the leaky pregnant body, I examine the experiences of US and UK women who correspond on interactive websites or chat rooms. Drawing upon ‘expert advice’ and the experiences of employed pregnant women in this study, I suggest that the bodily manifestations of pregnancy are taboo in some workplaces. I note how these women did not appear to draw upon policy as a resource for dealing with negative reactions to pregnancy from colleagues and employers. Instead, they tended to adopt strategies of secrecy, silence and supra‐performance in order to try and blend in. In the context of these strategies, I demonstrate how women's attempts to manage and control their bodies are severely compromised during pregnancy, when the body may be leaky and unpredictable.     

Differences in Family Norms for Men and Women Across Europe

The authors examined double standards regarding divorce among parents with young children and regarding having children within nonmarital cohabitation across Europe. Whether people disapprove more of men or of women engaging in these behaviors is not a priori clear. The authors formulated arguments in both directions and expected double standards to vary cross‐nationally by the level of socioeconomic gender equality in a country. They conducted multilevel analyses on a sample of about 44,000 individuals nested in 25 countries, obtained from the European Social Survey (2006). Double standards were measured with a split‐ballot design. The findings indicated that men were generally more disapproved of than women when displaying the family behaviors under study. Overall, women endorsed both double standards, whereas men endorsed only the double standard regarding divorce. However, substantial cross‐national differences in the double standards exist. The higher the level of socioeconomic gender equality, the larger these double standards in favor of women.     

‘Secret shopper’ study finds many barriers to OUD treatment

Treatment programs that don't accept insurance, but only cash, create a barrier for opioid use disorder (OUD) treatment, according to a study by Stephen Patrick, M.D., and colleagues, many of whom are from the Vanderbilt Center for Child Health Policy at Vanderbilt University Medical Center in Nashville. And despite the fact that pregnant women with OUD are a priority population for treatment due to the risks to the fetus of continued opioid abuse, nonpregnant women are more likely than pregnant women to be given an appointment for treatment with a buprenorphine‐waivered clinician.     

Dual Role Transition among First Time Pregnant Social Work Student Trainees

Since most social work student trainees are women of child bearing age, every year at least some of them become pregnant in the course of their fieldwork. This study investigates the dual transitions of becoming a mother while becoming a professional among 10 married social work student trainees whose fieldwork training coincided with their first pregnancy. The findings obtained from a cross-case thematic analysis of the contents of semi-structured interviews show that these trainees come to their fieldwork preoccupied with their pregnancy, torn between that and their clients, and feeling guilty and, in some cases, professionally inadequate as a result. They also show that some of them cope with their pregnancies by pushing themselves to over-function in matters that do not involve direct client interaction. The paper ends with practical recommendations to help pregnant trainees free up room for their clients' needs by providing them with opportunities to talk about their own.     

Running the Gauntlet: Women's Use of Emotion Management Techniques in the Abortion Experience

Women who have abortions are caught in the crossfire of a heated ideological battle. The prochoice contention is that most women feel relieved after terminating an unwanted pregnancy. The antiabortion camp asserts killing an unborn child psychologically scars the mother. Drawing on in‐depth interviews with forty women who have terminated a pregnancy, this study examines how the clashing emotion culture of abortion politics shapes women's feelings about abortion. Findings indicate that women use behavioral and cognitive techniques in an attempt to transform unpleasant physiological reactions, inappropriate expressive gestures, and problematic emotional labels. As they run the gauntlet, women also strategically dodge or deliberately approach hazardous situational cues (e.g., abortion debate rhetoric and demonstrators, pictures of fetal development and the ultrasound, and babies and pregnant women) to achieve a feeling state that is consistent with their ideology.     

Intimacy and Emotion Work in Lesbian,Gay, and Heterosexual Relationships

Knowledge about how gender shapes intimacy is dominated by a heteronormative focus on relationships involving a man and a woman. In this study, the authors shifted the focus to consider gendered meanings and experiences of intimacy in same‐sex and different‐sex relationships. They merged the gender‐as‐relational perspective—that gender is co‐constructed and enacted within relationships—with theoretical perspectives on emotion work and intimacy to frame an analysis of in‐depth interviews with 15 lesbian, 15 gay, and 20 heterosexual couples. They found that emotion work directed toward minimizing and maintaining boundaries between partners is key to understanding intimacy in long‐term relationships. Moreover, these dynamics, including the type and division of emotion work, vary for men and women depending on whether they are in a same‐sex or different‐sex relationship. These findings push thinking about diversity in long‐term relationships beyond a focus on gender difference and toward gendered relational contexts.     

Beliefs and Behaviors of Pregnant Women with Addictions Awaiting Treatment Initiation

Substance use during pregnancy poses clear risks to children’s healthy development. However, women with addictions face unique barriers to accessing substance abuse treatment and often delay or avoid treatment seeking. The objective of this study was to examine women’s beliefs about the impact of use on the developing baby and to examine the protective behaviors that women with addictions engage in during the period of time between when they first find out they are pregnant and when they begin substance abuse treatment. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 women who were either pregnant or postpartum and who had used illicit substances during pregnancy. All participants were currently receiving inpatient substance abuse treatment services to address their addiction and were asked to retrospectively report on their experiences. Interviews were transcribed, imported into a qualitative data analysis software, and iteratively coded for themes. Women reported being concerned about the impact of substance use on the developing baby, in particular, about the physical and long-term developmental consequences of prenatal exposure. Given these concerns, women described trying to protect the baby from harm on their own, outside of accessing traditional treatment services. They sought information anonymously, increased their engagement in health-promoting behaviors, and decreased their use of alcohol and other drugs. The results suggest that women who use alcohol and other drugs during pregnancy are often motivated to protect their baby from harm and are engaging in harm reduction behaviors prior to accessing treatment services.     

Weiner's attribution theory and female orgasmic consistency

In a study of female orgasmic functioning, hypotheses derived from Weiner's (1974) achievement‐motivation model of attribution theory were contrasted with those from a model of self‐serving attributional bias. A 40‐item Sexual Behavior Questionnaire that elicited expectations and causal attributions for orgasmic and nonorgasmic coital outcomes was administered to 87 women. Predictions that (a) unexpected orgasmic outcomes will be attributed to unstable causes, (b) expectancy for future outcomes will depend on the stability of attributions made for previous outcomes, and (c) attributions for coital outcomes will be consistent with previous personal history were confirmed for high, but not low orgasmic consistency women (all ps < .05). High consistency women used a typically masculine strategy, attributing success to stable, internal causes and failure to unstable, external causes. Low consistency women, on the other hand, did not make attributions consistent with their previous history. They employed a self‐handicapping strategy by blaming themselves for failure and not taking credit for success. These results, consistent with previous attributional literature, suggest that modifications need to be made in Weiner's model as it is extended to this clinical area.     

Teenage Pregnancy and Female Educational Underachievement: A Prospective Study of a New Zealand Birth Cohort

This paper examines the relationship between teenage pregnancy and educational underachievement in a cohort of 520 young women studied from birth to 21 years. Results showed that young women who became pregnant by the age of 18 years were at increased risk of poor achievement in the national School Certificate examinations, of leaving school without qualifications, and of failing to complete their sixth‐form year at high school. In addition, pregnant teenagers had lower rates of participation in tertiary education and training than their nonpregnant peers. Subsequent analyses showed that the links between teenage pregnancy and tertiary educational participation were largely noncausal and reflected the earlier academic ability, behavior, and family circumstances of young women who became pregnant. In contrast, antecedent child and family factors only partially explained associations between teenage pregnancy and high school participation and achievement. After adjustment for these factors, significant associations remained between teenage pregnancy and educational achievement at high school. An examination of the diverse life histories of young women who became pregnant revealed that for the majority of young women, pregnancy occurred after they had left school before finishing. These findings suggest that rates of teenage pregnancy might be elevated among young women who leave school early, rather than rates of early school leaving being elevated among young women who become pregnant during their teenage years.     

Women's Voices: Explaining Poverty and Plenty in a Rural Community*

Abstract This paper explores how a multiclass sample of white rural women in an economically depressed, overwhelmingly nonfarm community explain both their own families' economic circumstances and those of the most disadvantaged families in their community. All women in the sample—even those with a history of economic instability and welfare receipt—articulate an ethic of family self‐sufficiency. They uniformly believe that anyone who can work should work, although they vary in their definition of who “can work.” In general, the lower the social class, the greater the understanding of the social processes that precipitate and perpetuate poverty. Both working‐class and poor women clearly recognize the limitations of the local market for labor. Sample women are ambivalent about welfare receipt and welfare reform. Although they believe that families should be self‐supporting, many recognize the necessity of welfare for the survival of some families in the community.     

Breasted experiences in pregnancy: an examination through photographs

Drawing on qualitative data from a sample of pregnant women in Hobart, Australia this article uses ‘feminist’ ‘memory work’ and the ‘photovoice’ method as frames for discussing the ways in which interviews and participant-produced photographs may be used to trace and understand pregnant embodiment. I argue that digital photographs taken by women during pregnancy can reveal important information about how they negotiate their own experiences of breastedness and wearing maternity underwear over time. Here, the concept of ‘breastedness’ itself is expanded as women’s individual embodied experiences of pregnancy are reflected in the production and viewing of their own photographic images.     

The “Cougar” Phenomenon: An Examination of the Factors That Influence Age‐Hypogamous Sexual Relationships Among Middle‐Aged Women

Using data from the National Survey of Family Growth, the authors considered the prevalence of the “cougar” phenomenon and the characteristics of middle‐aged women who reported having sexual relationships with younger men in the past 12 months. They found that roughly 13% of sexually active women between ages 35 and 44 had slept with a man who was at least 5 years younger. Contrary to conventional assumptions, the results show that women with low incomes and those who self‐identify as “other race” (not White or Black) are more likely to be in an age‐hypogamous sexual relationship. Relative to all other relationship statuses, previously married women are the most likely to choose younger partners. Finally, the results suggest that age‐hypogamous relationships are not simply “flings”; a majority of them last at least 2 years, and a sizable share of “cougars” are married to their younger partners. These results highlight the need to reconsider our conventional understanding of women's sexual relationships at midlife.     

Women and Migration in Albania: A View from the Village

Since the fall of communism in the early 1990s, Albania has experienced migrations of epic proportions: 17 years later almost one in four Albanians has emigrated and lives abroad, primarily in Greece and Italy. Albanian emigration has by and large represented a typically male‐dominated model, whereby men have “led the way” and women have followed as family members. Despite the considerable participation of Albanian women in this migration, their roles and experiences remain under‐researched. Based on in‐depth interviews with rural migrant women and their families, as well as additional ethnographic material collected from 2004 to 2006 in Albania and Greece, this paper aims to fill this knowledge gap. The findings demonstrate the various ways in which Albanian rural women participate in the migratory process. They are often the most important pillar for supporting the family migration strategy through their productive and reproductive labour when remaining behind. They are also closely involved in decision‐making about the migration of other family members. Furthermore, they have been among the pioneers of the early 1990s migration themselves, including taking the long and risky journeys across the mountains to Greece. Overall, their contribution to the migrant household is beyond their presumed reproductive role and includes a strong economic component. While some “traditional” norms and values persist and are reinforced during migration, change does take place, albeit at a slow and gradual pace. However, for the emancipatory benefits women could accrue through migration to be enhanced, immigration policies need adjusting to address their position as fully autonomous economic and social actors, thus reducing their dependency on male “bread‐winners.” Albanian women’s particular migratory experiences, combined with their increasing numbers as migrants, make a compelling case for further attention from researchers and policymakers.     

Weighty matters: control of women's access to physical strength

This paper gives an account of the social forces exerted to contain women’s interest and access to weightlifting, and a muscular strength usually associated with masculinity. Weightlifting can create formidable physical strength but without the visible, physical displays of body building. The significance of weightlifting women’s lack of visibility is important and alters the social dynamic of their experience of physical strength. The study relies on in‐depth, semi‐structured interviews with 16 elite women weightlifters. They recount how disciplined, different and empowered they perceive themselves to be. Drawing together the weightlifting women’s illuminative epiphanic moments ( Denzin, 1989 , 1992 , 1993 ) revealed the close association of strength with force and, the social expectation that, not only is powerful physicality used to dominate others, but it is also expected to be male. Women’s access to domination is contained through the gendered nature of gym space and a masculine approach to training. Strength training is not only a source of selfidentity, but it is also a site of collective experience and enforced norms of affective behaviour. The paper concludes that it is important for women to be supported in their challenge in this arena.     

Walking an Emotional Tightrope: Managing Emotions in a Women's Prison

Until recently, the emotional experiences of women in prison have been overlooked by symbolic interactionists and social scientists. Similarly, research relevant to the sociology of emotions has not been explored in the social context of a correctional institution for women. The purpose of this study is to investigate emotional experiences from the unique perspective of incarcerated women. This research examines how women in prison perceive and manage their emotional lives while confined and asks whether their chosen strategies have an impact on their interactions and thus affect the institutional environment. Data were collected through in‐depth interviews with thirty‐five women incarcerated in a correctional institution located in the midwestern United States. Using a semistructured interview schedule, respondents were asked about a range of topics, one of which involved their emotional lives while incarcerated. Findings indicate these women define their emotional experiences as being simultaneously provocative and constrained. Respondents suggest that their emotional resources are individually, contextually, and culturally grounded. They discuss employing various strategies to manage their emotional lives while incarcerated, including diversions, spiritual pursuits, blocking exercises, self‐reflection, and humor. The majority of the techniques employed to control emotions are intrapersonal. Respondents describe personal efforts designed to manage their emotional experiences rather than share their feelings with others.     

Working in partnership: user perceptions of intensive home visiting

The aim of this study was to explore the perceptions of vulnerable women about the value of intensive home visiting in pregnancy and the first year of life delivered by health visitors trained to work in partnership with families. Twenty in‐depth interviews were conducted with women who had completed the home visiting programme and agreed to be interviewed. The data were fully transcribed and analysed thematically. Despite initial concerns and negative preconceptions about health and social service professionals, participating women greatly valued the relationships that were established with their home visitors and identified a number of ways in which they had benefited. These included increased confidence, improved mental health, better parenting, improved relationships and changes in their attitudes toward professionals. These findings demonstrate the potential of intensive home visiting delivered in partnership with mothers in reaching and helping vulnerable and ‘hard‐to‐reach’ families. They highlight the importance of establishing a trusting relationship between helper and provider, and the need for home visitors to have the necessary skills and qualities to establish such relationships. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.