第三方回收商领导型两级闭环供应链的回收与定价策略

与一般废旧产品的回收产品再制造相比,废弃电子电器产品回收拆解后需要兼顾产品与零部件再制造,从而减少电子电器产品对环境的污染,推进资源的重复利用。为了探讨第三方回收商的回收与定价策略对供应商和制造商的影响,本文构建由单一供应商、制造商和第三方回收商组成的两级再制造闭环供应链,建立Stackelberg博弈模型,研究两级再制造情形下和仅产品再制造情形下回收商的有效回收比例、回收定价和回收努力程度等决策,并对两种再制造情形下供应链各成员的决策与收益进行对比分析。研究发现：对于回收商而言,回收数量、有效回收比例的增加有助于回收商获得更多的额外收益。如果在仅产品再制造情形下的有效回收比例较大,回收商的决策和收益主要取决于无效零部件的回收价。当无效零部件的回收价较低时,回收商在仅产品再制造情形下的决策和收益更优;反之,回收商在两级再制造情形下的决策和收益更优。对于其他供应链成员而言,两种再制造策略都能够降低供应商和制造商的定价,促进市场需求的增加。具体而言,不同的再制造策略对批发价、零售价和市场需求的影响与有效回收比例和无效零部件的回收价密切相关。     

两级再制造的S-M闭环供应链的决策与绩效分析

供应商是再制造战略研究中不可忽视的决策主体之一,因为制造商的产品回收再制造战略会对供应商的零部件供应决策产生影响,而且处于强势背景的供应商也有选择是否参与零部件的回收再制造的权利。为了探讨产品和零部件的两级再制造战略对供应商和零售商的定价决策及收益的影响,本文运用Stackelberg博弈,对供应商强势背景下供应商选择参与和选择不参与零部件的回收再制造的两种Supplier-Manufacturer闭环供应链模型进行了研究,并对两种情形下的定价决策与收益进行了对比分析。最后得出以下结论:再制造战略对批发价决策的影响与产品的市场需求状况有关,对零售价决策的影响与回收风险状况有关;供应商应积极参与两级再制造战略,因为供应商选择供应可再制造的零部件使自身受益,并且参与零部件的回收再制造可以在降低批发价和零售价的基础上使双方受益。最后,运用数值算例验证了本文的研究结论,丰富了再制造战略对定价决策及收益影响的研究成果。     

基于再制造的多周期闭环营销投入及定价策略

针对再制造产品市场化艰难和缺少旧件来源的问题,结合"互联网+"战略提出了促进旧件回收与再制造零部件销售的闭环营销体系;闭环的营销投入可以同时发挥回收努力效应（增加单周期合格旧件回收量）和多周期广告效应（提升消费者对品牌的长期绿色认知度）,建立了多周期的闭环营销投入水平决策和产品差异定价模型并得到了最优决策;结合我国汽车零部件市场的现状,针对无闭环营销、初级闭环营销、闭环营销策略升级三种模式展开算例分析和对比。研究表明：闭环营销可以显著提高供应链总收益,营销策略的升级应考虑到回收努力效应和多周期广告效应的匹配,针对长生命周期的产品,闭环营销策略应经常调整。本研究结论有助于进一步完善再制造闭环供应链及营销理论基础。     

外包再制造下再制造设计对制造 /再制造影响

为分析外包再制造模式下,再制造设计对制造/再制造供应链竞争的影响,构建制造/再制造博弈模型.基于博弈模型,分析再制造设计费用不同承担方式对再制造设计努力程度、废旧产品回收率、收益和环境等影响.研究结果表明:原始制造商通过外包再制造不仅可以降低再制造商的市场竞争优势,还可以获得再制造带来的收益;再制造设计可以促进再制造商回收废旧产品,提高废旧产品回收率;无论是原始制造商还是再制造商承担再制造设计费用,两者收益分别在再制造设计努力程度的不同点达到最大,而不是再制造设计努力程度越大其收益越大;再制造对环境影响并不总是有利的,当单位再制造产品与新产品对环境造成的影响之比小于某一阀值,同时再制造设计给单位再制造产品带来收益与带给单位新产品收益之比大于某一阀值时,再制造才有利于降低对环境的影响.     

基于产品寿命次数的闭环供应链生产优化问题研究

本文研究了单一厂商制造/再制造集成系统的多期生产优化问题.首先,基于闭环供应链的全生命周期思想,通过引入产品寿命次数的概念构造了不超过产品寿命次数而能够进行再制造的回收产品与新制造产品之间的数量关系;接着,验证了将可再制造产品全部用于再制造时能够实现利润最大化的目标;然后,给出了几个有关解的性质;最后,通过算例对本文模型的性质和规律作进一步分析.     

政府补贴下制造 / 再制造竞争机理研究

以政府“以旧换再”补贴政策为背景,建立了原始制造商、再制造商与零售商两阶段博弈模型． 基于此博弈模型,考虑政府不采取补贴政策、政府补贴给再制造商及政府通过零售商补贴购买再制造产品消费者 3 种情况,对比分析了政府不同补贴策略对两种产品单位批发价格、零售价格、销售量、利润、消费者剩余及环境的影响． 结果表明: 当再制造产品的需求不受废旧产品回收量限制,政府补贴可以降低两种产品单位零售价格,增加再制造商和零售商的利润,提高消费者的剩余; 当再制造产品的需求受到废旧产品回收量限制时,政府补贴可以增加两种产品的单位批发价格和两种产品制造商的利润,但是会降低零售商的销售利润．     

政府补贴下制造/再制造竞争机理研究

以政府“以旧换再”补贴政策为背景,建立了原始制造商、再制造商与零售商两阶段博弈模型.基于此博弈模型,考虑政府不采取补贴政策、政府补贴给再制造商及政府通过零售商补贴购买再制造产品消费者3种情况,对比分析了政府不同补贴策略对两种产品单位批发价格、零售价格、销售量、利润、消费者剩余及环境的影响.结果表明:当再制造产品的需求不受废旧产品回收量限制,政府补贴可以降低两种产品单位零售价格,增加再制造商和零售商的利润,提高消费者的剩余;当再制造产品的需求受到废旧产品回收量限制时,政府补贴可以增加两种产品的单位批发价格和两种产品制造商的利润,但是会降低零售商的销售利润.     

废旧产品再制造环境下的产品定价和再制造方式分配

原材料价格的不断上涨,使得制造企业开始通过废旧产品的回收和再制造来缓解制造成本的上涨.然而,制造企业可以采用较昂贵的技术生产与新产品无差异的再制造品,也可以采用较廉价的技术生产在低端市场销售的再制造品,不同的再制造方式会给制造商带来不同的利润;另一方面废旧品的边际回收成本随着回收率的上升而上升,使得制造企业必须小心选择废旧品的回收数量.文中构建了高端市场和低端市场之间存在需求的线性替代关系时,再制造品和新产品的定价问题,并在优化计算的基础上得到了成本结构对于最优利润、最优价格、最优回收率和不同再制造方式比重的影响.     

考虑不同回收质量等级的再制造系统回收生产决策

废旧产品的回收再制造过程往往在回收质量、再制造成本、再制造产出率、再制造产品需求等方面存在不确定性因素,极大地增加了再制造生产管理决策的复杂性。本文在一个回收再制造系统中研究了存在多种回收质量等级时的两阶段回收—再制造联合优化决策问题,并扩展到需求与价格相关和再制造产出率随机两种情形。在最大化再制造商期望利润的决策目标下,基于每种回收质量等级的单位回收和再制造成本构造出再制造系统的有效生产前沿面,给出了不同决策情形下再制造商的最优回收数量、销售定价的解析解,并且分析了一些主要的参数对再制造商最优决策的影响。本文的研究结果表明：（1）含有多种回收质量等级的再制造系统中存在一个下凸的有效生产前沿面,不在该前沿面上的任何质量等级的回收产品都将不会被用于再制造;（2）在同等的政府补贴额度下,回收补贴方式对再制造商决策的影响程度大于再制造补贴方式;（3）当再制造品的市场需求与价格相关时,最优销售价格至少大于第一种被使用的回收质量等级的边际回收和再制造成本;（4）任意两种回收质量等级之间存在着替代或互补效应,由其成本差异决定,并且这种效应随着需求不确定性的增大而增大;（5）再制造产出率的不确定性和再制造品需求的不确定性之间存在"对冲"效应,这种效应随着再制造产出率不确定性的降低而减弱。本文的研究可为不确定性环境下再制造企业的回收、生产管理决策提供有益的管理启示。     

专利保护下闭环供应链的再制造策略研究

在专利完善市场,受专利保护的原制造商享有产品再制造的专有权利,只有获得原制造商的专利许可,第三方再制造商才能进行旧产品的回收再制造。本文分析了受专利保护下原制造商所采取的不同再制造策略:阻止旧产品再制造(N策略)、原制造商自己再制造(O策略)和许可第三方再制造商进行再制造(A策略),并建立了由零售商负责旧产品回收的闭环供应链模型。通过比较发现,只有在第三方再制造商处理旧产品的节省成本足够低时,受专利保护的原制造商才会选择许可第三方再制造商进行旧产品再制造。     

不同渠道权力结构下的S-M两级闭环供应链绩效分析

与传统正向供应链相比,闭环供应链关注对消费阶段后的废旧产品进行回收再制造,从而减少环境污染、降低资源消耗,对推动制造业的可持续发展具有非常重要与深远的意义。为了探讨产品再制造战略对闭环供应链中成员企业的影响,本文采用博弈论对一个供应商和一个制造商构成的S-M两级闭环供应链进行研究,着重分析供应商强势、制造商强势以及供应商和制造商双方势力均衡时的定价策略和供应链系统绩效。研究结果表明:当实施产品再制造战略时,产品的销售价格降低、产品的市场销量增加,零部件的批发价格则上涨。从成员企业个体来看,再制造战略总是有助于制造商获得更多额外收益,而对供应商的影响效应则与供应商在渠道中的权力地位有关,处于强势地位的供应商可以通过大幅提高零部件批发价格的方式来保证自己从再制造中获益,而处于弱势地位的供应商则有可能遭受利益损失。从系统整体绩效来看,再制造战略具有提升供应链系统整体赢利水平的积极作用,但是供应商和制造商之间的权力结构会影响再制造的经济价值。具体而言,供应商和制造商势力均衡时的供应链绩效最优,其次是制造商主导的供应链,最差的是供应商主导的供应链。     

无偏好市场下制造/再制造系统最优生产决策

尽管再制造可以重新获得产品的附加价值,但是再制造产品和新产品具有一定的替代性,厂商在各期应该采用何种生产策略?本文选取单一制造厂商,首先讨论无偏好市场下两期再制造最优生产策略,建立厂商利润最大化的经济优化模型;然后给出了再制造成本节约临界值,以便厂商在不同的再制造成本区域内采取合适的价格和产量决策策略;进而将模型拓展,研究无限期的最优产量和定价策略。由于不同产品的再制造成本节约s的比例并不相同,本文通过优化所得的结论进行数据模拟,研究产品回收率和降级率对s*的影响,s对厂商的产量、定价决策及利润的影响,进而分析降级率对产量和价格的影响,为厂商制定产品设计、生产和回收决策提供依据。     

多再制造商回收定价竞争博弈

多个再制造商在同一回收市场中获取废旧产品并进行再制造,他们之间存在回收竞争.每个再制造商回收废旧产品的数量取决于自身付出的回收价格,同时和对手们的回收价格相关.目标是最大化各自的期望利润.本文首先利用优化理论和非合作博弈理论,证明了该博弈作为超模博弈,存在唯一的Nash均衡.然后通过比较发现竞争下的Nash均衡价格高于串谋下的合作均衡价格.最后通过数值仿真探讨了再制造商的数目和再制造成本对博弈的影响.     

Coordination and Priority Decisions in Hybrid Manufacturing/Remanufacturing Systems

Companies are increasingly realizing the need to coordinate their manufacturing and remanufacturing operations. This can be a challenge due to the inherent variability in the condition and amount of returns, which has a direct impact on remanufacturing costs and leadtimes. In this paper, we develop a modeling framework to compare two alternative strategies that use either manufacturing or remanufacturing as the primary means of satisfying customer demand. Of course, in the event that the demand cannot be met by the prioritized process, the secondary process is used as a contingency. In our basic model, the priority decisions are made at the component level in replenishing the serviceable inventory, while the disposal and new component ordering decisions are made independently. The second model represents the coordination of remanufacturable and new component inventory control decisions. Using simulation‐based optimization on a large number of experiments, we observe that when prioritization is in the upstream echelon and there is no coordination in managing component stocks, there exists a critical return ratio, below which it is beneficial to give priority to manufacturing and above which it is beneficial to give priority to remanufacturing. We also see that coordinated control of the component inventories considerably reduces the importance of prioritization. These observations remain valid when congestion in the shop floor is also taken into account. We also study the benefits of state‐dependent dispatching policies in a realistic case.     

COMPETITION IN REMANUFACTURING

We present a two‐period model of remanufacturing in the face of competition. In our model, an original equipment manufacturer (OEM) competes with a local remanufacturer (L) under many reverse logistics configurations for the returned items. After establishing the Nash Equilibrium in the second period sub‐game, we use numerical experiments for comparative statics. OEM wants to increase L'S remanufacturing cost. Surprisingly, while L competes in the sales market, she has incentives to reduce oem's remanufacturing cost. A social planner who wants to increase remanufacturing can give incentives to the OEM to increase the fraction available for remanufacturing, or reduce his remanufacturing costs.     

Take‐Back Legislation: Consequences for Remanufacturing and Environment

In the last two decades, many countries have enacted product take‐back legislation that holds manufacturers responsible for the collection and environmentally sound treatment of end‐of‐use products. In an industry regulated by such legislation, we consider a manufacturer that also sells remanufactured products under its brand name. Using a stylized model, we consider three levels of legislation: no take‐back legislation, legislation with collection targets, and legislation with collection and reuse targets. We characterize the optimal solution for the manufacturer and analyze how various levels of legislation affect manufacturing, remanufacturing, and collection decisions. First, we explore whether legislation with only collection targets causes an increase in remanufacturing levels, which is argued to be an environmentally friendlier option for end‐of‐use treatment than other options such as recycling. While increased remanufacturing alone is usually perceived as a favorable environmental outcome, if one considers the overall environmental impact of new and remanufactured products, this might not be the case. To study this issue, we model the environmental impact of the product following a life cycle analysis–based approach. We characterize the conditions under which increased remanufacturing due to take‐back legislation causes an increase in total environmental impact. Finally, we model the impact of legislation on consumer surplus and manufacturer profits and identify when total welfare goes down because of legislation.     

Dynamic performance of a hybrid inventory system with a Kanban policy in remanufacturing process

In this paper we study a hybrid system with both manufacturing and remanufacturing. The inventory control strategy we use in the manufacturing loop is an automatic pipeline, inventory and order based production control system (APIOBPCS). In the remanufacturing loop we employ a Kanban policy to represent a typical pull system. The methodology adopted uses control theory and simulation. The aim of the research is to analyse the dynamic (as distinct from the static) performance of the specified hybrid system. Dynamics have implications on total costs in terms of inventory holding, capacity utilisation and customer service failures. We analyse the parameter settings to find preferred “nominal”, “fast” and “slow” values in terms of system dynamics performance criteria such as rise time, settling time and overshoot. Based on these parameter settings, we investigate the robustness of the system to changes in return yield and the manufacturing/remanufacturing lead time. Our results clearly show that the system is robust with respect to the system dynamics performance and the remanufacturing process can help to improve system dynamics performance. Thus, the perceived benefits of remanufacturing of products, both environmentally and economically, as quoted in the literature are found not to be detrimental to system dynamics performance when a Kanban policy is used to control the remanufacturing process.     

Development and analysis of mathematical and simulation models of decision-making tools for remanufacturing

This article presents decision-making tools for remanufacturing. The first decision-making tool was used to address inventory lot-sizing problems in a hybrid remanufacturing–manufacturing system with varying remanufacturing fraction. In this article, the new inventory lot-sizing model with variable remanufacturing lot sizes has been shown to exhibit better performance than the benchmark model with fixed remanufacturing lot sizes. The new inventory lot-sizing model is anticipated to become a valuable decision-making tool in companies that are planning to adopt remanufacturing. The second decision-making tool was applied to address a production and inventory planning problem in a remanufacturing system considering different remanufacturing policies for a given remanufacturing strategy. For a remanufacture-to-stock system with two quality remanufacturables groups four alternative policies were examined, a policy which specifies simultaneous processing utilising dedicated resources was shown to be the best policy to achieve a shorter remanufacturing cycle time. For a remanufacture-to-order system with two quality remanufacturables groups, the three relevant policies of the four alternative policies were examined, a policy which specifies sequential processing and switching between various quality remanufacturables groups was shown to be the best policy to achieve a shorter remanufacturing cycle time. The production and inventory planning simulation models in a remanufacturing system are expected to become significant decision-making tools in remanufacturing operations.     

Remanufacturing and the Component Commonality Decision

Firms often determine whether or not to make components common across products by focusing on the manufacturing and sales of new products only. However, component commonality decisions that ignore remanufacturing can adversely affect the profitability of the firm. In this article we analyze how remanufacturing could reverse the OEM's commonality decision that is based on the manufacturing and sales of new products only. Specifically, we determine the conditions under which the OEM's optimal decision on commonality may be reversed and illustrate how her profit can be significantly higher if remanufacturing is taken into account ex ante. We illustrate the implementation of our model for two products in the Apple iPad family.