Psychologically and biochemically assessed stress in a follow-up study of long-term unemployed

It has been suggested that psychological stress is one of the reasons for the high morbidity among unemployed people in Western countries. The same may apply to the well-documented high mortality. It would be expected that increased levels of biological stress would be found in these people. In the present study a sample of 310 long-term unemployed people from Norway was followed for 2 years. Psychologcal stress was assessed by medical examination and by the psychometric tests GHQ-28 and HSCL-30, the latter compared with a reference population of employed people. Serum levels of cortisol, prolactin and testosterone, together with immunoglobulins IgA, IgG and IgM, were compared with working controls. The unemployed had a high level of psychological distress at the first examination, the sanie for men and women. At the 2-year follow up distress was reduced by re-employment. This fits the 'causation hypothesis' which explains the high distress level as caused by unemployment. The other direction of causation, 'the selection hypothesis', assuming that distressed persons have an increased chance of continuous unemployment, was also confirmed in the present study. As for biological stress, significant differences were not found between the unemployment, the re-employed and the working controls.     

Psychologically and biochemically assessed stress in a follow-up study of long-term unemployed

Abstract

It has been suggested that psychological stress is one of the reasons for the high morbidity among unemployed people in Western countries. The same may apply to the well-documented high mortality. It would be expected that increased levels of biological stress would be found in these people. In the present study a sample of 310 long-term unemployed people from Norway was followed for 2 years. Psychologcal stress was assessed by medical examination and by the psychometric tests GHQ-28 and HSCL-30, the latter compared with a reference population of employed people. Serum levels of cortisol, prolactin and testosterone, together with immunoglobulins IgA, IgG and IgM, were compared with working controls. The unemployed had a high level of psychological distress at the first examination, the sanie for men and women. At the 2-year follow up distress was reduced by re-employment. This fits the ‘causation hypothesis' which explains the high distress level as caused by unemployment. The other direction of causation, ‘the selection hypothesis', assuming that distressed persons have an increased chance of continuous unemployment, was also confirmed in the present study. As for biological stress, significant differences were not found between the unemployment, the re-employed and the working controls.     

Unemployment in Urban China: an Analysis of Survey Data from Shanghai

Abstract. We analyse the unemployment problem in the largest Chinese city, Shanghai, based on a survey of the unemployed conducted in late 1989. We find, as expected, that unemployment is particularly serious among school-leavers and contract and temporary workers, but also find a surprisingly high incidence of unemployment amongst permanent state employees and relatively long unemployment durations. The Shanghai unemployed rely heavily on occasional work for support, and only a small proportion-receive state benefit. We identify problems of interpretation stemming from the stock-sampling nature of the survey, and use non-parametric methods to reveal an underlying strong downward movement in individual re-employment probabilities.     

Unemployment Duration in an Unemployment Blackspot

This paper analyses the factors affecting the duration of an unemployment spell amongst a sample of exclusively long-term unemployed individuals. The results indicate that person-specific unemployment propensities have a significant effect on re-employment probabilities. These effects, however, vary significantly by gender and religion. The results also indicate statistically significant negative ‘duration dependence’ effects. The evidence suggests that employers regard long unemployment durations as a ‘negative signal’ about an applicant's potential productivity. The latter implies that, in terms of government policies aimed at reducing unemployment, the demand-side of the unemployment equation should be given greater emphasis.     

The Long‐term Unemployed: A New Protected Class of Employee?

Since the onset of the latest United States (U.S.) recession (beginning in December 2007), the U.S. economy has been posting high unemployment levels consistently exceeding 8 percent. Of specific interest, the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), reports on a specific subset of the U.S. unemployed: the long‐term unemployed, defined as those who are unemployed for 27 weeks and over. Since December 2009, the share of the long‐term unemployed of the total U.S. unemployed has exceeded 40 percent (through April 2012), the highest level since 1948 when data was first collected. A phenomenon of this recession is an alleged public bias by American private sector employers against hiring the long‐term unemployed, or even simply those unemployed. While the authors support the removal of discrimination against the unemployed in job advertisements, they cannot support the larger notion of including those who are unemployed as a protected class of employees. Becoming or being unemployed is a state that one can change, and based on the lack of research on how widespread this discrimination is (beyond anecdotal stories or limited research surveys), they believe that extending protection under equal employment opportunity legislation would be overreaching and inappropriate at this time.     

Are There Differences in the Health– Socio‐economic Status Relationship over the Life Cycle? Evidence from Germany

Abstract. Most research on the relationship between health and socio‐economic status (SES) controls for age or investigates the relationship for a particular age range. This paper, however, examines the effect of SES on health across different age groups. Using data from the German Socio‐Economic Panel and controlling for health–SES endogeneity, we find that the health–income relationship does vary across the life cycle and between genders and different labor force status, with the impact of income on health relatively more pronounced for younger cohorts. The unemployed also have lower levels of health at all levels of income.     

Vacancy Referrals,Job Search,and the Duration of Unemployment: A Randomized Experiment

One goal of the Public Employment Service is to facilitate matching between unemployed job‐seekers and job vacancies; another goal is to monitor job search so as to bring search efforts among the unemployed in line with search requirements. The referral of job‐seekers to vacancies is one instrument used for these purposes. We report results from a randomized Swedish experiment where the outcome of referrals is examined. To what extent do unemployed individuals actually apply for the jobs they are referred to? Does information to job‐seekers about increased monitoring affect the probability of applying and the probability of leaving unemployment? The experiment indicates that a relatively large fraction (one‐third) of the referrals do not result in job applications. Information about intensified monitoring causes an increase in the probability of job application, especially among young people. However, we find no significant impact on the duration of unemployment.     

Locus of control of unemployed people and its relationship to psychological and physical well-being

This study examines the relationship between locus of control (general and work) and the psychologcal and physical well-being of 190 unemployed people. Results indicate that an internal locus of control was associated with lower levels of anxiety and depression, and higher levels of self-esteem and life satisfaction than externals. Intenals also tended to report fewer physical symptoms not requiring medical attention. There was no relationship between either measure of locus of control and physical symptoms requiring medical attention. Future research on unemployment is suggested.     

Sense of coherence and ill health among the unemployed and re-employed after closure of an assembly plant

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between employment status, ill health and sense of coherence(SOC). A cross-sectional sample of the former workers at the closed down Volvo Kalmar plant in Sweden was used. A questionnaire was mailed to all identified subjects 2 years after the closure of the plant. Responses were obtained from 344 persons, of whom 173 were re-employed and 92 were unemployed. They answered the questionnaire anonymously on background variables, SOC and ill health (physical and psychological symptoms). A notable difference was found between the re-employed and unemployed, where the unemployed reported symptoms significantly more often as well as a significantly weaker SOC. A main finding in a four cell model indicated that unemployment had a rather low impact on symptoms in the presence of a strong SOC. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was performed with simultaneous analysis of the unemployed and reemployed. The SEM analysis indicated that SOC seemed to have a greater impact on psychological symptoms among unemployed compared with re-employed persons. However, it should be noted that the present study does not allow for the determination of cause-effect relationships.     

Sense of coherence and ill health among the unemployed and re-employed after closure of an assembly plant

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between employment status, ill health and sense of coherence(SOC). A cross-sectional sample of the former workers at the closed down Volvo Kalmar plant in Sweden was used. A questionnaire was mailed to all identified subjects 2 years after the closure of the plant. Responses were obtained from 344 persons, of whom 173 were re-employed and 92 were unemployed. They answered the questionnaire anonymously on background variables, SOC and ill health (physical and psychological symptoms). A notable difference was found between the re-employed and unemployed, where the unemployed reported symptoms significantly more often as well as a significantly weaker SOC. A main finding in a four cell model indicated that unemployment had a rather low impact on symptoms in the presence of a strong SOC. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was performed with simultaneous analysis of the unemployed and reemployed. The SEM analysis indicated that SOC seemed to have a greater impact on psychological symptoms among unemployed compared with re-employed persons. However, it should be noted that the present study does not allow for the determination of cause-effect relationships.     

Noncontractible Heterogeneity in Directed Search

This paper provides a directed search model designed to explain the residual part of wage variation left over after the impact of education and other observable worker characteristics have been removed. Workers have private information about their characteristics at the time they apply for jobs. Firms value these characteristics differently and can observe them once workers apply. They hire the worker they most prefer. However, the characteristics are not contractible, so firms cannot condition their wages on them. This paper shows how to extend arguments from directed search to handle this, allowing for arbitrary distributions of worker and firm types. The model is used to provide a functional relationship that ties together the wage distribution and the wage–duration function. This relationship provides a testable implication of the model. This relationship suggests a common property of wage distributions that guarantees that workers who leave unemployment at the highest wages also have the shortest unemployment duration. This is in strict contrast to the usual (and somewhat implausible) directed search story in which high wages are always accompanied by higher probability of unemployment.     

Coping with unemployment: a literature review and presentation of a new model

This paper reviews the unemployment literature with a view to identifying a new way of modelling the process of coping with unemployment. The review shows that early models of coping adopted a trait-based approach, which viewed coping as a stable, transcending disposition of the person and, therefore, failed to consider the range of coping responses that people use during unemployment. The use of state-based approaches to coping, in more recent research, has overcome this problem. However, the newer models still assess coping via discrete, linear relationships and have focused primarily on the obtainment of re-employment rather than promotion of psychological health during unemployment. In an attempt to overcome these problems, the 'Coping, Psychological and Employment Status' (CoPES) model is presented in the current paper. This new and comprehensive model illustrates the non-recursive relationships between stressors, cognitive appraisals, coping efforts and psychological health during unemployment. The CoPES model also depicts the relationship between coping, psychological health and re-employment. This model provides a more integrated approach to coping with unemployment and allows for the examination of new relationships. The CoPES model, applied within Ipsative-Normative designs and assessed using quantitative and qualitative techniques, will make a significant contribution to research conducted into unemployment.     

The Influence of Unemployment Benefits on Unemployment Duration: Evidence from Spain

ABSTRACT: This paper analyses the duration of unemployment spells and the possible incidence of unemployment insurance on job search behaviour and voluntary duration of unemployment in Spain. To do so, a longitudinal data set containing information on unemployment recipients during the period 1987-93 is used. Hazard rates and survival profiles are constructed for the cohorts of unemployed workers entering the benefit system at different points in time, and a logit model of the probability of leaving the system before exhausting entitlement period is presented. The results do not support the view that the unemployed tend to intensify their job search when benefits are near exhaustion.     

Rehires and Unemployment Duration in the Swedish Labour Market — New Evidence of Temporary Layoffs

The paper investigates temporary layoffs in the Swedish labour market. Previous reports of few temporary layoffs are rejected. About 45 percent of unemployed people who found a job returned to a previous employer. As a stock measure, 10 percent of the unemployed are on temporary layoff. Using new job and recall as distinct exits in a competing risks model, one cannot reject a horizontal duration dependence for new jobs, while the recall hazard shows a strong, negative duration dependence. Clearer predictions of the effect of education on job probabilities are also found. Further, the results probably have implications for the interpretation of several policy parameters, including labour market programme outcomes.     

A Model of Hygiene Practices and Consumption Patterns in the Consumer Phase

A mathematical model is presented, which addresses individual hygiene practices during food preparation and consumption patterns in private homes. Further, the model links food preparers and consumers based on their relationship to household types. For different age and gender groups, the model estimates (i) the probability of ingesting a meal where precautions have not been taken to avoid the transfer of microorganisms from raw food to final meal (a risk meal), exemplified by the event that the cutting board was not washed during food preparation, and (ii) the probability of ingesting a risk meal in a private home, where chicken was the prepared food item (a chicken risk meal). Chicken was included in the model, as chickens are believed to be the major source of human exposure to the foodborne pathogen Campylobacter. Monte Carlo simulations showed that the probability of ingesting a risk meal was highest for young males (aged 18-29 years) and lowest for the elderly above 60 years of age. Children aged 0-4 years had a higher probability of ingesting a risk meal than children aged 5-17 years. This difference between age and gender groups was ascribed to the variations in the hygiene levels of food preparers. By including the probability of ingesting a chicken meal at home, simulations revealed that all age groups, except the group above 60 years of age, had approximately the same probability of ingesting a chicken risk meal, the probability of females being slightly higher than that of males. The simulated results show that the probability of ingesting a chicken risk meal at home does not only depend on the hygiene practices of the persons preparing the food, but also on the consumption patterns of consumers, and the relationship between people preparing and ingesting food. This finding supports the need of including information on consumer behavior and preparation hygiene in the consumer phase of exposure assessments.     

Foreign Languages and their Impact on Unemployment

Using a large European data set, I investigate the impact of knowing foreign languages on unemployment for the first time. The focus is on natives (not on immigrants). I find that (1) knowing a foreign language reduces the probability of being unemployed by at least 3.4 percentage points; (2) females benefit more than males from learning foreign languages; (3) English and German tend to have a larger and more robust impact on unemployment than French, Spanish, and Italian; (4) but the impact of all these five languages varies considerably across countries.     

The Effect of Early Cognitive Ability on Earnings Over the Life‐Cycle

This paper utilizes information on cognitive ability at age 10 and earnings information from age 20 to 65 to estimate the return to ability over the life‐cycle. Cognitive ability measured at an early age is not influenced by the individual's choices of schooling. We find that most of the unconditional return to early cognitive ability goes through educational choice. The conditional return is increasing for low levels of experience and non‐increasing for experience above about 15–25 years. The return is similar for men and women, and highest for individuals with academic education. Only a small part of the return can be explained by higher probability of having a supervisory position.     

Internal Migration in Sweden: The Effects of Mobility Grants and Regional Labour Market Conditions

The main purpose of this study is to investigate whether variations in mobility grants have affected internal migration in Sweden. The paper also contains an exploration of how changing labour market conditions influence the migratory behaviour of the unemployed in comparison with other individuals. The results indicate that total migration flows respond to changes in labour market conditions in accordance with predictions from economic theory. This finding seems mainly to stem from the migratory behaviour of the unemployed. Furthermore, non-matching migration subsidies at the levels employed are not found to be migration enhancing.     

THE LOT OF THE UNEMPLOYED: A TIME USE PERSPECTIVE

This paper provides new evidence on the time use of employed and unemployed individuals in 14 countries. We devote particular attention to characterizing and modeling job search intensity, measured by the amount of time devoted to searching for a new job. Job search intensity varies considerably across countries, and is higher in countries that have higher wage dispersion. We also examine the relationship between unemployment benefits and job search.