Perceived Justice and Reactions to Coercive Computers1

Sociology and justice theories indicate that coercive behavior creates a sense of injustice, but what if a computer is the proximal source of this coercion? I argue that people attribute justice to computers, but do so differently than to humans—people may perceive computers’ behavior as unjust, but not as unjust as the same behavior by humans. Likewise, individuals resist and retaliate against coercive behavior, but do so less if the coercer is a computer. These hypotheses are extended from justice studies in social exchange. Specifically, I expand on Molm et al.’s (1993) laboratory experiment of coercion in social exchange, adding a human versus computer identity condition. I conduct a laboratory experiment (N = 121) that replicates Molm et al.’s study and supports the hypotheses on justice, resistance, and retaliation to coercive computers.     

A Kantian-Style Critique of Person-in-Environment

This article provides a historical and philosophical analysis of the intellectual thought supporting ecological systems theory and the person-in-environment model. It offers a critique outlining both strengths and shortcomings by analyzing the claims to validity upon which the theory rests. These claims rest on an analogy with various theories empirically established in the natural sciences; as such, validity claims rest heavily upon the emphasis of humans' continuity with animals. Consequently, the claims' shortcomings arise from their inability to address adequately issues arising from qualities that make humans distinct from animals—such as language and its impact upon culture, history, human relationships, and our ability to construct our environment and thus do more than simply interact with the environment.     

Computers and Social Diagnosis

This paper addresses ways in which computers are now and will likely continue to influence social diagnosis within direct practice. Social diagnosis is first defined followed by an overview of current and emerging uses and issues about computers from the perspective of the client. One currently available computerized clinical assessment system is provided as an illustration followed by discussion of expected future directions and of the need for social workers to take an active and informed role in shaping these developments.     

Innovative Use of Computers for Planning in Human Service Organizations

Summary

This paper deals with the question of why some human service organizations are more innovative in their use of computers than others, particularly in the area of strategic planning. Rather than focus upon the technology, per se, it explores the propensity for and context within which human service managers apply computers to matters of strategic importance. It begins with a summary of the two dominant theoretical traditions within which organizational behavior has been viewed. These contrasting perspectives are then applied to the extensive body of empirical findings related to organizational innovation. The result is a discernment of key variables or variable clusters, which provide the basis for alternative accounts of innovative behavior. The emergent use of computers for strategic planning serves as the focus of the study.     

An Example of Serendipity: The Unintended Impact of Computers on Social Work Practice

The author argues that computers are forcing changes upon social work practice and social service delivery which go far beyond computerisation itself. Recent events in Britain concerning subject access, data protection and confidentiality are outlined and some of their implications for practice examined.     

ACCESS TO TECHNOLOGY AND THE TRANSFER FUNCTION OF COMMUNITY COLLEGES: EVIDENCE FROM A FIELD EXPERIMENT

Access to information may represent an important barrier to learning about and ultimately transferring to 4‐year colleges for low‐income community college students. This article explores the role that access to information technology, in particular, plays in enhancing, or possibly detracting from, the transfer function of the community college. Using data from the first‐ever field experiment randomly providing free computers to students, we examine the relationships between access to home computers and enrollment in transferable courses and actual transfers to 4‐year colleges. The results from the field experiment indicate that the treatment group of students receiving free computers has a 4.5 percentage point higher probability of taking transferable courses than the control group of students not receiving free computers. The evidence is less clear for the effects on actual transfers to 4‐year colleges and the probability of using a computer to search for college information (which possibly represents one of the mechanisms for positive effects). In both cases, point estimates are positive, but the confidence intervals are wide. Finally, power calculations indicate that sample sizes would have to be considerably larger to find statistically significant treatment effects and reasonably precise confidence intervals given the actual transfer rate point estimates. (JEL J24, O33, I23, I24)     

Computer systems in addiction treatment programs: Availability and implications for program evaluation

Addiction treatment programs have been slow to adopt computerized information systems. Little systematic data exist on programs' technological infrastructures and use of electronic databases to store and analyze client information. Likewise, there is little information available on counselors' access to and use of the Internet for learning about new treatment techniques. Drawing upon data obtained in 2002–2003 from nationally-representative samples of publicly- and privately-funded addiction treatment centers and their counselors, this article describes the current state of the field in terms of data system availability and Internet usage. The availability of client-level databases is variable but continues to evolve. Programs maintaining electronic client data appear to be at an advantage for implementing outcomes monitoring activities. While counselors' access to computers is high, their use of the Internet and the NIDA website is low. The implications of these findings, and directions for future research, are discussed.     

The Personal Computer and the Small Social Agency

Abstract

Use of computers in everyday professional tasks by caseworkers is described. Eighteen front line workers, after two or three hours of training, created and manipulated data bases of client, service, and outcome data tailored to their own caseloads. The authors believe that adoption of computers for everyday tasks by front line workers depends on three elements: Specially designed software which is very user-friendly; conceptual framework as bridge between agency task and computer system; and agency look and feel to all screen displays, forms, and reporting formats. Workers did overcome fear of computers and did see how computers could be professionally useful. This approach seems worthy of examination and further development.     

The use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in the rehabilitation of individuals with severe functional impairments in a municipal care service system

This article explores the development of a scheme to use Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in the training of individuals with severe functional impairments. Computers were used as an integral part of a rehabilitation programme for training, and the authors found that the resource was a useful addition to other treatment methods. This article describes the development and subsequent setting up of computers for training and how the study progressed. The study used a somewhat unique bottom up approach that first trained care-giving staff in computer skills. The caregivers in turn worked with and trained some of those they served. This learning strategy drew upon the concept of learning, empowerment and the motivation of all involved in a system and process. The study found that by using ICT all involved felt a greater sense of empowerment and improvement in the quality of life. That caregivers were involved at all stages was valuable in that they felt an ownership of the process and that they also benefited from being involved because they also learned new skills.     

WHEN YOU JUST CANNOT GET AWAY

The continuing evolution of information and communication technologies (ICTs), such as Internet-connected computers and cellular phones, provides a means for increased work/home permeability and for current work/home boundaries to be redefined as workers can potentially be accessible by employers and family/friends at all times. This transformation of work/home boundaries can open the individual to increased levels of negative spillover, wherein aspects of one role negatively impact or impede upon another. This investigation uses data from the Work-Life and Technology Use Survey to determine if ICT use plays a role in defining work/home boundaries and serves as a significant predictor of negative spillover in both the work-to-home and home-to-work directions. Results show that frequency of engaging in ICT-related activities (e.g. checking email and using Facebook) is associated with negative spillover in both directions, suggesting that ICTs may play a significant role in facilitating negative work/home spillover.     

Computers and Productivity: are Aggregation Effects Important?

This article examines the empirical implications of aggregation bias when measuring the productive impact of computers. To isolate "aggregation in variables" and "aggregation in relations" problems, we compare production function estimates across specifications, econometric estimators, and data levels. The results show both sources of bias are important, especially when moving from sectors to the economy level, and when the elasticity of all types of noncomputer capital are restricted to be equal. The elasticity of computers is surprisingly stable between industry and sector regressions and does not appear biased by incorporating a restrictive measure of non‐computer capital. The data consistently show that computers have a large impact on output.     

Gender, technology and jobs

Men have traditionally gained more than women from access to technologies at work which bring prestige, job security, more satisfying work and higher pay. Typically female jobs have centred on technologies, if they have at all, which tend towards routine and possibly deskilled work. Typing is a prime example. It is possible that this is changing through computerization, which is extensive but also equally distributed by gender. Does the wage premium, which use of a computer has been found to confer on users, benefit women sufficiently to suggest some sort of equalization through technology, or possibly even a female advantage? This is tested using data from four European countries. There is no across‐the‐board benefit from the use of computers. For both men and women it depends on the nature of their occupation. Some, more routine usages of computers are associated with a negative outcome. However, this occupational balance itself varies by gender.     

Exploring the requirements for multimodal interaction for mobile devices in an end-to-end journey context

The paper investigates the requirements for multimodal interaction on mobile devices in an end-to-end journey context. Traditional interfaces are deemed cumbersome and inefficient for exchanging information with the user. Multimodal interaction provides a different user-centred approach allowing for more natural and intuitive interaction between humans and computers. It is especially suitable for mobile interaction as it can overcome additional constraints including small screens, awkward keypads, and continuously changing settings - an inherent property of mobility. This paper is based on end-to-end journeys where users encounter several contexts during their journeys. Interviews and focus groups explore the requirements for multimodal interaction design for mobile devices by examining journey stages and identifying the users' information needs and sources. Findings suggest that multimodal communication is crucial when users multitask. Choosing suitable modalities depend on user context, characteristics and tasks.     

Information Technology Availability in Schools of Social Work

Abstract

The introduction of information technology into social work education is essential and inevitable. Little, however, is known about the current use of computers in schools of social work. This study is the first to focus on the variety and availability of hardware and software; the extent to which computer-related courses are integrated into the curriculum; and the types of computers, uses, and users in schools of social work. The sample consists of non-US schools drawn from the membership of the International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW) and US schools drawn from the membership of the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE). The study tested three hypotheses: A. Schools in the United States use computers significantly more and for more advanced purposes than do schools in other countries; B. Schools that offer graduate degrees will be better equipped with computers and use them more extensively; and C. The larger the school, the greater the number of computers and the higher the sophistication of computer use. The findings supported these hypotheses and portend a trend for standardization of hardware and software in schools of social work. Based on the findings, the article recommends curriculum and policy modifications that should be considered by schools of social work.     

Psychological Gender Issues in Computing

This paper builds on the implication from Rosen et al.'s (1987) work that the variation in findings with respect to gender differences in attitudes towards computers and anxiety caused by computers (i.e. ‘computerphobia’), may be due in part to differences of psychological gender (regardless of biological gender) within subjects. Sandra Bem's (1974, 1981) theory of psychological gender is incorporated into the research, identifying subjects as ‘sex typed’ or ‘androgynous’. A student population of under/post graduates (N=282; 50.7% of which were male and 49.3% were female) is presented with the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), a computer anxiety questionnaire (Heinssen et al. 1987) and a computer attitude questionnaire (Dambrot et al. 1985). The latter questionnaire has positive and negative subscales. The results indicate that masculinity correlates with positive attitudes towards computers for both sexes. In addition masculinity was correlated with less anxiety and less negative attitudes towards computers for females, lending support to a sex by gender interaction (i.e. that masculinity has a different effect on each sex). Femininity correlated negatively with programming experience in females. This is discussed in relation to computing being seen as a ‘male activity’, and the subsequent educational and organizational implications identified.     

The allocation of money in cross-class families

This paper examines the patterns of income allocation in cross-class families; that is, in families in which the wife is employed in higher level white-collar or professional employment, and the husband in manual work. Following the work of Jan Pahl (1982 and 1983) families are categorised according to their system of money management. The majority of families here employ either a ‘one purse’system based upon joint family funds, or an independent system based upon separate bank accounts. In addition, couples who use an ‘allowance’system, a shared system, or a variant of the independent system with only one-earner are discussed. Whenever possible, qualitative reports from the families interviewed are drawn upon. The paper reveals ways in which gender-specific behaviour may be observed through the study of families’allocative systems. In particular, the wives’propensity to assume responsibility for food shopping, regardless of the couples’sources of income or allocative pattern chosen, is demonstrated. In addition, however, the source of income – specifically cash payments to the husbands – is seen to have an independent effect upon the couples’perceptions of money within the family. The paper concludes with speculation as to why the majority of these affluent families employ a system of joint family funds.     

Using Computers in Community Educational Programs

Summary

This article offers some theoretical and practical advice for using computers in educational settings. The primary focus is out-of-school settings for school-aged children; however, many of the points arc applicable to other educational settings and for other ages. The primary message is that computers should be viewed as tools to help students explore and understand particular educational content, The article discusses several principles and guidelines for using computers this way. It also offers practical suggestions about staff development and funding of computer-based educational programs. It concludes with some reflections about a perspective from which to continue developing useful applications.     

Leaders' Attitudes and Computer Use in Religious Congregations

This study explores the attitudes of leaders of religious congregations toward computers. We uncover attitudes toward information (and thus toward computers) that are different from those reported for leaders in other organizational contexts. In short, clergy felt that systematically collecting and storing information and trying to serve as many people as possible could distract them from what is distinctive about their jobs—that the job in a religious congregation is accomplished through personal rather than transactional relationships.     

Humans and urban development mediate the sympatry of competing carnivores

Humans can profoundly shape animal community dynamics, but such effects have rarely been evaluated for terrestrial carnivores. Humans affect carnivores in both spatial and temporal dimensions via the chance of human encounter and alteration of the landscape through urban development. We investigated three hypotheses regarding how humans mediate the sympatry of larger, dominant carnivores with their smaller, subordinate counterparts. We tested these hypotheses by examining the spatio-temporal dynamics of a dominant carnivore (coyote Canis latrans) and its subordinate competitor (red fox Vulpes vulpes) across an extensive urban park system. We found that dominant and subordinate carnivores exhibited strong and often opposing spatio-temporal responses to the probability of human encounter and urban development. Spatially, coyotes visited more highly developed sites less frequently while red foxes exhibited an opposing response. Temporally, both species avoided humans via nocturnal activity. Spatio-temporally, red foxes avoided coyotes at all sites and avoided humans at highly developed sites, whereas coyotes showed a positive association with humans at such sites. Our analysis indicates that areas with higher urban development might act as spatial refugia for some subordinate carnivores against interference from larger, dominant carnivores (a “human shield” effect). Our findings also reveal that broad-scale spatial avoidance is likely a crucial component of coexistence between larger, dominant carnivores and humans, whereas finer-scale spatio-temporal avoidance is likely a key feature of coexistence between humans and smaller, subordinate carnivores. Overall, our study underscores the complex and pervasive nature of human influence over the sympatry of competing carnivores inhabiting urban systems.     

Evaluation of Computer Games' Impact upon Cognitively Impaired Frail Elderly

Summary

The authors of-this article discuss the value of computer-use among older adults. It Is suggested that older adults can benefit significantly from ongoing education and that computers can be a valuable tool in this process. The cognitive capacities of older adults are discussed, with particular attention paid to long- and short-term memory functioning. The use of computers for memory skills training is highlighted. A study was undertaken using the computer game “Memory of Goblins” at the Seattle Day Center for Adults. This article describes both the game and how the project was conducted. Limitations of the study are presented. Although the authors acknowledge that conclusions are difficult to draw from this particular study, there is evidence to suggest that the impact of computer use among the elderly population can be profound. Implications for future research are presented.