Skipped Generation Families: Sources of Psychological Distress Among Grandmothers of Grandchildren Who Live in Homes Where Neither Parent Is Present

Abstract

Today, more than at any period in U.S. history, more grandparents are raising their grandchildren. In many instances, the biological parents are absent from these grandparent-headed households for a variety of reasons. Although grandfathers and grandmothers both serve in the role of surrogate parents, grandparent caregiving can be seen as a “women's issue” when examined from the broader sociological context of gender. Using data from the National Survey of America's Families, this study examined factors associated with the frequency of feelings of psychosocial distress among grandmother caregivers of grandchildren in skipped generation families. Multivariate regression models indicate that for these grandmothers, being Black and living in the Midwest, having a family income below the poverty level, having Medicaid or SCHIP coverage, not receiving Welfare payments for childcare, and having a usual place for health care were all associated with more frequent feelings of psychosocial distress. On the other hand, being married, receiving social services help with childcare, grandmother's perception of less parenting burden, and living below poverty in the Midwest were associated with less frequent feelings of psychosocial distress.     

The Role of Federal Policies in Supporting Grandparents Raising Grandchildren Families

Abstract

Grandparents caring for their grandchildren is among the oldest practices in child rearing with roots embedded in the traditions across many cultures. However, in recent years, the issue of “grandparents raising their grandchildren” has garnered the attention of researchers, advocates, service providers and even the popular press. Dynamic changes in family life, related social trends and child welfare policies in the United States have resulted in dramatic growth of intergenerational care giving among this population. The 2000 United States Census shows that there are 6 million children living in grandparent- and other relative-maintained households, which represents a thirty-percent increase from the last Census. This growth has created the need for effective federal policies that support and insure the well-being of these families.

This paper examines some of the reasons grandparents raising grandchildren are capturing public attention, and the growing needs for effective federal policies that support this burgeoning population. We will (1) provide a brief demographic sketch of grandparent-headed families, (2) identify some of the challenges faced by these families, and (3) explore some of the most effective federal public policies, in particular the new National Family Caregiver Support Program, which are emerging from an intergenerational agenda directed at assisting these families. We conclude by noting that the issue of “grandparents raising their grandchildren” presents a unique opportunity to develop coalitions and policies that cross sometimes rigidly defined age-based policy structures.     

Voices of African American Grandmothers Raising Grandchildren

ABSTRACT

This study examines cultural solutions to challenges perceived by African American grandmothers as they interface with kinship care policy-practice in raising their grandchildren under the auspices of the US child welfare system. Findings suggest the study participants desire to have a voice in the kinship policy-practice process, to be valued, and to have the child welfare system treat them as true partners and valuable experts. The grandmothers provide clear directives to child welfare, kinship policymakers and administrators on specific steps they can take to demonstrate respect for the grandmothers' experiences and expertise.     

Adolescents in Foster Care with Their Grandparents

ABSTRACT

The aim of this research was to analyse the relationships between foster grandparents and their adolescent grandchildren. The sample consisted of 54 grandparents from Malaga (Spain), with a mean age of 65.9 for grandfathers and 63.6 for grandmothers, who foster 70 adolescents, 31 boys and 39 girls, with ages ranging between 11 and 17. The majority of the grandfathers were retired, while the grandmothers worked at home. The grandparents presented a low level of education and scant economic resources. The results indicated that the relationship between the grandparents and grandchildren was mainly perceived as good or very good. The grandparents perceived that grandchildren maintained a better relationship with their grandmothers, whom they trusted more and to whom they disclosed more, than with their grandfathers. The grandparents recognised that their relationship with their grandchildren was perceived more as parent-child than grandparent-grandchild. The grandparents were more affectionate and communicative with their grandchildren than critical or rejecting. They also used more inductive styles than rigid or indulgent forms when applying rules.     

A multimodal intervention for grandparents raising grandchildren: results of an exploratory study

This article describes the results of an exploratory study of a multimodal, home-based intervention designed to reduce psychological stress, improve physical and mental health, and strengthen the social support and resources of grandparents raising grandchildren. The six-month intervention included home visits by registered nurses, social workers, and legal assistants; the services of an attorney; and monthly support group meetings. The intervention resulted in improved mental health scores, decreased psychological distress scores, and increased social support scores. Participants also experienced improvement in the level of public benefits received and in their legal relationships with their grandchildren. Implications of these findings for practice are highlighted.     

Grandmother Caregivers in Inner-City Latino Families

SUMMARY

This study presents a profile of 42 Latina (primarily Puerto Rican and Dominican) grandmothers, and the children they are rearing in New York City. Informal support systems of these families are then described. While most respondents appeared to have social connections, nearly half lived only with their grandchildren. Fourteen percent reported no available help with child-related activities and only 58% of those who had help felt confident that it would continue. Barriers to information, referrals, and use of additional services are discussed, as are implications for practice, policy, and further research.     

Behavior problems in children raised by grandmothers: The role of caregiver distress, family resources, and the home environment

Over the past few decades there has been a dramatic increase in children being raised by grandparents due to a variety of factors including child maltreatment, parental abandonment, substance abuse, and incarceration. The purpose of this study is to examine the extent of behavior problems in children being raised by grandmothers and to determine factors in their current environment that are related to child behavior problems. The study draws on McCubbin's resiliency model of family stress, adjustment and adaptation.The sample comprised of 230 children ages 2 to 16 years who were being raised by grandmothers in parent-absent homes. The families were predominantly low income and African American. The grandmothers ranged in age from 37 to 80 years. Grandmothers responded to several self-report measures pertaining to child behavior problems, family resources, social support, and caregiver psychological distress. Trained research assistants completed a standardized observational measure of the home environment.Results indicated that 31.3% of child participants scored in the clinically elevated range for total behavior problems, with 21.3% and 32.6% scoring in the elevated range for internalizing and externalizing behaviors, respectively. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that of the variables examined, increased psychological distress in grandmothers was most predictive of child behavior problems, followed by less supportive home environments and fewer family resources.Results of the present study underscore the need for interventions that focus on reducing child behavior problems, as well as enhancing the parenting skills of grandmothers raising grandchildren. Findings also support the need for strategies to reduce stress in grandmother caregivers and to improve access to resources needed to provide supportive home environments for their grandchildren.     

Young African American Grandmothers: A Missed Developmental Stage

Abstract

In recent years the phenomenon of young black grand-motherhood is attracting the attention of social scientists in many disciplines. This problem stems from the fact that young unmarried teenage girls are giving birth and are thus making their young mothers grandmothers. The complexity of the problem mounts owing to the fact that many young grandmothers have not completed their own developmental tasks. This paper addresses some of the issues involved and provides strategies for social work intervention.     

Grandparents-An Intergenerational Resource for Families

Abstract

This paper briefly outlines the context and role of grandparents as an intergenerational resource for families in the UK. It is based upon a literature review and practical work being undertaken by the Beth Johnson Foundation with grandparents and partner organizations locally and nationally. The paper remarks upon the ‘rediscovery’ of grandparents in the research literature. The emergence of the beanpole family, the pivot generation, family breakdown and grandparents raising grandchildren, are highlighted as being significant demographic and social factors influencing the position of grandparents. The roles of grandparents are described in terms of practical, emotional and financial support given to families. Both positive and negative feelings of grandparents and their families towards these roles being undertaken are identified. Longstanding deficits in legislation, policy and provision to support grandparents are highlighted, along with some signs of progress being made, particularly in Wales. It concludes with four key messages on visibility, heterogeneity, strategy and the family.     

Religiosity as a Moderator of Family Conflict and Depressive Symptoms among African American and White Young Grandmothers

ABSTRACT

This study examined the association between religiosity, conflict in the mother-daughter relationship, and depressive symptoms among 83 African American and white grandmothers. Interviews were conducted during the early stages of adaptation to grandparenthood due to the birth of a baby to a teenage daughter. The results of this study suggest that religiosity is associated with less depressive symptoms. In addition, religiosity moderates the relationship between conflict and depressive symptoms for African American grandmothers. Specifically, highly religious African American grandmothers experiencing low conflict with their daughters reported lower depressive symptoms than those who were less religious. These findings were not evident for white grandmothers. The implications of these findings for grandmothers in families with teenage mothers are discussed within the context of race, religiosity, family relationships, and psychological well-being.     

Grandparents and Their Adult Grandchildren: Recurring Themes From the Literature

ABSTRACT

Research on relationships between adult grandchildren and their grandparents is summarized to examine what is known about this neglected research topic. Viewed from a life span perspective, this review provides information concerning grandparent–adult grandchild interaction patterns, proximity, emotional closeness, and social support and the influence of grandparents on the mental health of adult grandchildren. Also considered is the influence of gender, ethnicity, affinal versus consanguine ties, and divorce on the relationship. Implications of the findings for researchers and family practitioners are discussed.     

Changing Opportunities: An Overview of the History of College Health Education

Abstract

This paper reports an investigation of the relationship between college students' social support and social interaction and their health and well-being. The authors analyzed data from a telephone survey of 161 students at a large state university to test for stress-buffering and main effects on well-being of four types of structural social support. Frequency of participating in activities with other students was negatively associated with depression symptoms and positively associated with feelings of health and physical fitness. The other support measures (number of friends on campus and whether respondents belonged to groups on campus or had a romantic relationship) yielded less consistent main effects and Stress x Support interactions that were inconsistent with a buffering model. Interpretations that focus on the role of affectively positive social activities in the well-being of college students are discussed.     

Grandparent-Headed Families in the United States

Abstract

Grandparents are returning to the role of parents in ever-increasing numbers. Custodial grandparents often find themselves isolated from sources of support as they face unique emotional, physical, and financial challenges on a daily basis. Nearly half are grandparents without partners and the majority are caring for two or more young children. Children in the care of grandparents are more likely to experience cognitive, emotional, and physical challenges. Their early traumatic experiences may lead to difficulties in communication and forming attachments.

The Parent Topics Questionnaire is a standardized assessment measure designed to provide parent education group facilitators with specific information about needs, desires, and expectations of participants. Administration of this instrument to four parent groups revealed a high readiness for information among the custodial grandparent population. Based on information obtained from this measure, a holistic program was developed which simultaneously provided services to care-giving grandparents, their young grandchildren, and educational professionals.

Grandparent and grandchildren's groups met weekly and emphasized topics and activities aimed at meeting common needs within these populations. Educational professionals participated in a series of inservice meetings aimed at increasing awareness of needs and strengths of grandparent-headed families, modifying curriculum to more effectively meet grandchildren's needs, and enhancing knowledge of existing resources. Pre- and post-test analysis demonstrate significant positive effects for all involved populations. Grandparents were found to increase in parenting knowledge, perceived levels of social support, willingness to utilize existing resources, and enjoyment of time with their grandchildren. Levels of isolation and perceived depression were decreased. Participating grandchildren demonstrated increased abilities to interact effectively with peers and adults and perceived their interactions with grandparents more positively. Educational professionals reported feeling more informed about custodial grandparent family issues, more confident about interacting with grandparents, and more knowledgeable about existing resources.     

Birth Mothers Now Birth Grandmothers: Intergenerational Relationships in Open Adoptions

Abstract

Despite growing trends in openness between birth and adoptive families, little is known about what happens when adopted children become parents and birth mothers become birth grandmothers. These new and unique relationships between birth mothers and their grandchildren were examined through intensive case study analyses of in-depth interviews with birth mothers who placed infants for adoption more than 25?years ago (N?=?11). Findings revealed enjoyment in their role as grandmothers and emphasized the significant role the adult adoptee (parent) played in influencing communication with their grandchild and families’ incorporation of technology-mediated contact to overcome geographic barriers. Implications for practitioners, policy makers, and researchers are discussed.     

Missing Grandchildren: Grandparents’ Lost Contact and Implications for Social Work

The critical importance of maintaining family contact and intergenerational relationships for ongoing wellbeing is known to social work. Equally known is the damage caused by severed relationships. Recent literature has suggested an increased incidence of grandparents raising their grandchildren, often after family breakdown. Less evident in the literature is grandparents’ experience of reduced, lost, or denied contact with their grandchildren. In the qualitative, exploratory study reported here, the lived experiences of 21 Queensland grandparents were documented through in-depth interviews. The overall findings suggest that disrupted, lost, or denied contact with grandchildren was very distressing and impacted on grandparents’ health; that seeking to safeguard and support grandchildren could result in damaged family relationships and denied contact; and that a cycle of lost and regained contact can occur in some circumstances. These findings indicate that an increased role for social workers may be warranted, in listening to and including grandparents when working with families, and recognising grandparents’ need for support.     

Children’s Relationships With Grandparents in Married and in Shared and Sole Physical Custody Families

ABSTRACT

Grandparents can be an important source of support for their grandchildren in the often difficult time during and after parents’ divorce or separation. Grandchild–grandparent relationships can be hampered or even totally lost when parents separate, however. What happens with grandparent relationships when parents break up is closely linked to postdivorce physical custody arrangements. This article focuses on the beneficial role that grandparent relationships can play after parents separate and examines how grandparent–grandchild relationships differ in shared and sole physical custody arrangements.     

The Vulnerability for Elder Abuse Among a Sample of Custodial Grandfathers: An Exploratory Study

ABSTRACT

Older adults have been known to make sacrifices in their caregiving roles. Gerontology literature on custodial grandparents has primarily focused on grandmothers and the challenges they face when they assume primary care for grandchildren. Little is known about the risks that older men face when they become custodial grandparents. This article highlights types and warning signs of abuse, exploitation and neglect. Exploratory study was undertaken with a racially diverse group of custodial grandfathers to fill a gap in the literature about the vulnerability for elder abuse, exploitation and neglect as expressed by older Black, Latino and White custodial grandfathers. To provide a more inclusive understanding of elder abuse, areas of vulnerability were identified for consideration by practitioners, educators and researchers. The implications of this research point to the need to rethink elder abuse assessment, prevention and intervention strategies with older men.     

Family violence: Multiple levels of assessment and intervention

Abstract

Violence in the family is examined as a political, social and practice issue. The literature is reviewed with attention to varying views on the aetiology of violence in the family, including psychological, social and political perspectives. Suggesting an integrated psychosocial perspective, the author proposes concepts of power, powerlessness and effectance as useful explanatory notions in understanding the violent moment. Implications for intervention are suggested.     

Emerging Trends: Holistic,Comprehensive Family Support Programs

ABSTRACT

The results of a qualitative study funded by the Annie E. Casey Foundation indicate that a promising path to improving the lives of disadvantaged families is through more holistic, comprehensive approaches to family support. These approaches combine traditional family support activities with the development of human and economic capital. The effectiveness of comprehensive programs is based on the premise that adult and child well-being are interconnected with the physical, economic, and social aspects of their lives. Recommendations are provided for improving existing family support programs through the implementation of holistic strategies.     

A Psychosocial View of Mental Illness: An Introduction to Part II

Increasingly, grandmothers are parenting grandchildren in homes where parental presence is sporadic or nonexistent. A disproportionate percentage of African American grandparents fall in this category. The author reviews the literature on the African American grandmother in the context of the African American family and describes a practice model for service provision to those women who seek support as they “parent again.”