“Running as Women”?

Abstract

This article compares the campaign brochures of female and male candidates who ran for the Pennsylvania State Assembly in 1996 and 1998. The photographs and statements made in the brochures were content analyzed to see if female candidates advertise themselves in ways identified in the literature as “running as a woman.” Specifically, the issues, traits, qualifications, and group associations mentioned in the brochures were coded as “male,” “female,” or “other.” The findings indicated that while women present a mix of messages in their brochures, they are more likely than men to identify “female issues” and “female qualifications.” These differences were greatest among Republicans and challengers.     

Do Differences Matter?

Abstract

Have women members of Congress made a difference? A handful of studies have answered this “so what” question by looking for differences between male and female legislators. We build on previous research and propose an additional way of answering this question. If women members are making a difference, then they should be changing how men behave in Congress. Specifically, if women members are making a difference, then they should be changing how their male colleagues debate the issues. We content-analyze each House floor debate on the Hyde Amendment to see if women are changing how men debate the abortion issue. We find that men and women frame the abortion debate differently, and we find some evidence that women members of Congress have shifted the debate over time to focus less on the morality of abortion and more on the health of the pregnant women. We hope our research stimulates further work that not only looks for differences between men and women legislators, but also looks to see if the differences cause legislatures to change the way they do business.     

Gendered Perceptions of Community Needs and Concerns

Abstract

Acentral tenet of feminism is that women engage in community practice differently than men. This study explores whether gender differences exist in perceptions of community needs, strengths, problems and responsibilities. Also examined are differences within male and female groups along the dimensions of race, location, years at current address and ownership status. This analysis is based on survey responses from 191 residents in one urban community. Contrary to feminist theory, findings reveal strong agreement between men and women. There were, however, numerous differences within gender groups, especially among women. Implications for feminist scholarship, community practice, and social work education are discussed.     

Sex,Communication Structures and Role Specification

Abstract

This study investigates variations in male and female approaches to leadership in small discussion groups. Three aspects of leadership are investigated: (1) the nature of participation in the turn-taking system (cf. Duncan, 1972), (2) leadership role specialization (cf. Burke, 1967) and (3) the differential bases of attribution of leadership by sex. Data are obtained from 10 four-member groups, each composed of two males and two females. In half of the groups a male was appointed as coordinator, while a female was appointed as coordinator in the other half. Results indicate no differences between male and female coordinators in the number of turns taken in the discussions, but near significant differences in providing back-channel feedback to current speakers and in turn-collaborations, with male coordinators engaging in more of these activities than non-coordinators, and female coordinators engaging in fewer of these activities than non-coordinators. In terms of leadership role specialization, both male and female coordinators engage in more task oriented behaviors compared with non-coordinators, however, male coordinators also engage in more social-emotional activity while female coordinators engage in less social-emotional activity compared with non-coordinators. Finally, females are attributed leadership primarily on the basis of their directiveness while males are attributed leadership primarily on the basis of their task contributions and are denied leadership on the basis of their integrative contributions. The implications of these findings for sex role differences in leadership are discussed.     

Domestic violence among male and female patients seeking emergency medical services

Gender differences among a cohort of injured patients seeking emergency medical services were examined with respect to their experiences as perpetrators and/or victims of domestic violence. Contextual issues, including violence initiation, emotional and behavioral responses to partner-initiated violence, and injury frequency and severity were analyzed. Women reported male partner-initiated violence more frequently than men reported female partner-initiated violence. Behavioral responses to partner initiated violence varied. Women were more likely to report using force back and to involve law enforcement. Women were more likely to be injured in a domestic assault over their lifetime, within the last year, and at the time of recruitment. Comparison of injury severity revealed that women reported higher rates of injuries than men in all possible severity categories. Women also reported experiencing more fear than men during partner-initiated violence, as well as being subjected to larger numbers of dominating and controlling behaviors, and greater intimidation secondary to their partner's size. Understanding contextual differences in partner violence for women and men has significant implications for policy development, identification, treatment, and referral of patients identified as living in violent relationships.     

The effect of stimulus content on volunteering for sexual interest research among college students

Much of the literature on volunteer bias in sexual interest research has been limited to either identifying variables on which volunteers differ from nonvolunteers or examining how the intrusiveness of the meaurement device affects volunteer rates. The present study was designed to examine whether stimulus content would affect volunteer rates and volunteer/non‐volunteer differences in a large sample of college students (206 men and 358 women). The study also sought to determine whether such findings could also apply to research that recruits from exclusively heterosexual samples. Students completed questionnaires in small groups and were asked whether they would be willing to volunteer for studies that would involve viewing and rating five different types of sexually explicit images (nude men, nude women, heterosexual behavior, male homosexual behavior, and female homosexual behavior). Results indicate that men and women differed in the types of images that they would volunteer to view, based upon the content of the images. Furthermore, volunteers for each type of image reported significantly greater self‐monitoring as well as sexual and general sensation seeking than did nonvolunteers, while differences on other measures were less consistent. Discussion is given to specific ways in which the findings and gen‐eralizability of sexual interest study results can be affected.     

The effect of stimulus content on volunteering for sexual interest research among college students

Much of the literature on volunteer bias in sexual interest research has been limited to either identifying variables on which volunteers differ from nonvolunteers or examining how the intrusiveness of the measurement device affects volunteer rates. The present study was designed to examine whether stimulus content would affect volunteer rates and volunteer/nonvolunteer differences in a large sample of college students (206 men and 358 women). The study also sought to determine whether such findings could also apply to research that recruits from exclusively heterosexual samples. Students completed questionnaires in small groups and were asked whether they would be willing to volunteer for studies that would involve viewing and rating five different types of sexually explicit images (nude men, nude women, heterosexual behavior, male homosexual behavior, and female homosexual behavior). Results indicate that men and women differed in the types of images that they would volunteer to view, based upon the content of the images. Furthermore, volunteers for each type of image reported significantly greater self-monitoring as well as sexual and general sensation seeking than did nonvolunteers, while differences on other measures were less consistent. Discussion is given to specific ways in which the findings and generalizability of sexual interest study results can be affected.     

Gender differences in antifat attitudes

Abstract

Differences between women and men in the expression of prejudice toward obese people coexist with widespread antifat attitudes. It has been argued that these differences stem from women's tendency to internalize the social norm of slimness and to develop eating concerns, while men tend to resort to externalization and to showing antifat attitudes. Data obtained from 597 students (264 male and 333 female) revealed that men showed more prejudice against obese people, and that women had high scores in eating problems questionnaires. Finally, it is discussed why men and women adopt different strategies to deal with the social norm of thinness.     

Mapping Right-Wing Women’s Policy Priorities in Latin America

ABSTRACT

Do right-wing women hold unique policy priorities from that of left-wing women and right-wing men? And do right-wing women legislators represent the priorities of right-wing citizens? Right-wing women share unique gendered socialization experiences with left-wing women, but their ideology informs values and attitudes critical to policy preference formation. Political representation theories suggest that women legislators should hold distinct incentives to represent female constituents. However, institutional theories suggest right-wing women legislators may face different incentives that limit the extent to which they represent right-wing female constituents. To evaluate our expectations, we leverage survey data from the Latin American Public Opinion Project and the Parliamentary Elites of Latin America. We demonstrate how right-wing women citizens differ from left-wing women citizens across a range of policy priorities. Then, we evaluate elite priorities for these same policy issues. We find little evidence for policy priority congruency between women citizens and women legislators on the right.     

Gender Gaps in Public Opinion about Lesbians and Gay Men

Using data from a 1999 national RDD survey (N = 1,335), thisarticle examines gender gaps in heterosexuals' attitudes towardlesbians, gay men, and a variety of topics related to homosexuality.Attitudes toward lesbians differed from attitudes toward gaymen in several areas, and significant differences were observedbetween male and female heterosexual respondents. Survey participantsgenerally were more likely to regard gay men as mentally ill,supported adoption rights for lesbians more than for gay men,and had more negative personal reactions to gay men than tolesbians. Overall, heterosexual women were more supportive thanmen of employment protection and adoption rights for gay people,more willing to extend employee benefits to same-sex couples,and less likely to hold stereotypical beliefs about gay people.Heterosexual men's negative reactions to gay men were at theroot of these gender differences. Of all respondent-by-targetcombinations, heterosexual men were the least supportive ofrecognition of same-sex relationships and adoption rights forgay men, most likely to believe that gay men are mentally illand molest children, and most negative in their affective reactionsto gay men. Heterosexual men's response patterns were affectedby item order, suggesting possible gender differences in thecognitive organization of attitudes toward gay men and lesbians.The findings demonstrate the importance of differentiating lesbiansfrom gay men as attitude targets in survey research.     

Gender Styles in State Legislative Committees

Abstract

This research focuses on the gendered nature of legislative institutions by examining the conflict resolution styles of state legislative committee chairs. Based on a survey of 285 state legislative committee chairs, focus groups and individual interviews, the study examines a sizeable cohort of men and women engaged in fundamentally similar leadership tasks but under varying institutional circumstances and in more than a single state. The research finds that women committee chairs raise their voices to resolve conflicts in a different way from their male colleagues. More importantly, the study shows how gender composition of the membership, the distribution of gender power, and the extent of professionalization influence conflict resolution style. These data challenge the predominant view of legislative leadership as transactional behavior and suggest the need to consider whether masculine behavior and institutional norms have been conflated.     

Gender and the Seriousness of Assaults on Intimate Partners and Other Victims

We examine the ways in which assaults committed by male intimate partners are more serious than assaults committed by female partners and whether these differences reflect gender differences in offending and victimization generally. Analyses of the National Violence Against Women and Men Survey (N =6,480) show that, in general, gender effects do not depend on the victim's relationship to the offender. Regardless of their relationship (a) men cause more injuries; (b) women suffer more injuries although their injuries tend to be less severe; (c) victims are more fearful of male offenders but only if the offenders are unarmed; and (d) men are particularly likely to precipitate assaults by other men, not their female partners. Violent husbands do assault with particularly high frequency but so do women who assault family members.     

Gender and Managerial/ Leadership Styles:

This study of Arizona high-level state government administrators describes substantial current variations in male and female behavioral styles of management and leadership. In addition to assessing differences in how men and women deal with power, handle subordinates, and interrelate, the findings also highlight the difficulty associated with women's adoption of a male model of behavior. The lack of repitition of the same patterns among mid-level civil servants suggests an interaction between societal sex roles, organizational contexts, and behavioral characteristics in producing variations in overall styles of management and leadership.     

Introduction

Abstract

This article examines how surges of female representation have produced gender patterns in standing committees and affected the financial support for “women's policy” in the Norwegian and Swedish national legislatures. The argument is two-fold. The more women there were in the Riksdag and the Storting, the more likely they were initially to end up on a “female” standing committee. Second, as the ratio of women legislators grew, spending on “families and children” in the national budget plummeted in both countries, only to acquire more prominence as the proportion of women legislators reached more than one fourth. The article begins with an extensive critical analysis of the gender-theoretical assumptions of the women and legislatures literature, suggesting that contemporary feminist scholarship that assumes gender to be malleable and contextual is more fruitful.     

Diversified committees in hiring processes: Lab evidence on group dynamics

In recent years, committee quotas have been introduced to combat the underrepresentation of women in male-stereotyped environments. However, the lack of clarity surrounding in-group preferences and gender differences in group dynamics calls into question the inclusion of women as a solution to the gender gap in labour market outcomes. In this paper, I provide experimental evidence to show: a) how the gender composition of committees affects the probability of female candidates being recruited in a hiring process; and b) how men and women behave in group dynamics as a mechanism explaining the outcome of the policy. I designed a laboratory experiment in which groups of three subjects had to jointly select two candidates from a pool of six to perform a task. Female candidates’ probability of success did not improve as the number of women in the committee increased. I found that male-majority committees were the most beneficial for female candidates. In these groups, men and women exhibited a similar level of voice and influence during deliberations, proposing both male and female candidates for recruitment. Conversely, female-majority groups were the most detrimental to female candidates. Women in female-majority groups exhibited a similar level of voice, but men, who proposed more male candidates, were more influential, which limited the contribution of women. The paper suggests that having more women in the committee does not necessarily benefit female candidates and calls for caution when it comes to designing policies for equality in the labour market.     

College students' acceptance of trans women and trans men in gendered spaces: The role of physical appearance

ABSTRACT

Transgender people often face prejudice and discrimination in school, employment, housing, and health care, and this can affect their psychological well-being. Although the literature on prejudice toward transgender people is growing, there is limited research that has examined differences in attitudes toward trans women and trans men separately. Specifically, the current study examined the role of physical appearance in the acceptance of transgender women and men in gendered spaces, including bathrooms, locker rooms, residence halls, and sorority and fraternity organizations. Participants viewed masculine-appearing and feminine-appearing images of a trans woman and trans man. Measurements of overall transacceptance and gendered-space acceptance were assessed. Results indicated that, in general, trans women were less accepted than trans men. The masculine-appearing trans woman was less accepted in the gendered spaces compared to the feminine-appearing trans woman and both images of the trans men. Also, female participants were generally more accepting of transgender people than male participants were. These findings suggest that, compared to trans men, discrimination of trans women is more likely, especially when the trans woman's physical appearance transgresses traditional gender expectations.     

Gender-based expectancies and observer judgments of smiling

Beliefs about gender differences in smiling were measured by asking college students to rate how much they believed hypothetical women and men smile. Women were believed to smile more than men. Individual differences in this belief did not affect subsequent scoring of smiles, whether scored by counting the number of smiles exhibited by videotaped male and female targets or by rating the amount of smiling exhibited. An expectation about gender differences in smiling was experimentally induced, either that women smile more than men or that there is no gender difference in smiling. This expectation did not affect subsequent scoring of smiles, regardless of scoring method and regardless of whether the expectation was induced as a casual aside or in more formal instructions. In all conditions female targets were observed to smile more than male targets. Rating produced larger target gender effects than counting, but this could have been due to the nature of the rating process rather than observer bias.The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Thomas Leahy and Joe Pieri in data collection, and of Cliff Brown and an anonymous reviewer for their comments on an earlier version of this paper. Miles Patterson served as Action Editor for this article.     

Gender Differences in the Effects of Personality Traits on Party Identification in the United States

This study examines whether the Big Five personality traits have different effects on male and female party identification in the United States. Research has found associations between personality traits and partisanship in the United States. However, there is solid evidence of gender differences in personality traits, and past studies have not yet considered whether personality-partisanship relationship might be gender-differentiated. This study finds that with the increase of agreeableness, women tend to be Republicans, but men tend to be Democrats. Furthermore, as openness to experience increases, women are more likely to be strong partisans, but men are more likely to be independents or leaning partisans. To sum up, this study provides evidence that the effects of the Big Five personality traits on party identification vary by gender and suggests that it is wrong to assume that the Big Five personality traits have the same impacts on male and female party identification.     

Men's self-reports of unwanted sexual activity

We investigated men's experience with unwanted sexual activity-including unwanted kissing, petting, or intercourse-engaged in because of physical or psychological pressure or from societal expectations about male sexuality. We developed a questionnaire asking if respondents had ever engaged in unwanted sexual activity for any of 51 reasons. This questionnaire was administered to 507 men and 486 women. More women (97.5%) than men (93.5%) had experienced unwanted sexual activity; more men (62.7%) than women (46.3%) had experienced unwanted intercourse. Using factor analysis, we grouped the 51 questionnaire items into 13 general reasons; we then compared percentages of men and women who had engaged in unwanted sexual activity for these 13 reasons. There were seven sex differences in reasons for unwanted sexual activity: Five were more frequent for women than men; two reasons were more frequent for men than women-peer pressure and desire for popularity. There were eight sex differences in reasons for unwanted intercourse; more men than women had engaged in unwanted intercourse for all eight. The double standard for male and female sexuality and implications for therapy are discussed.     

Coercive Heterosexual Sexuality in Dating Relationships of College Students

Summary

Although it has generally been assumed that most instances of coercive sexual acts involve male coercion against female targets, recent data (appearing in the literature beginning in the late 1980s) suggest that the reverse experience is also common. In the present investigation, the Ross and Allgeier Sexual Experience Questionnaire was administered to 214 university students (113 women and 101 men) who reported past interactions in which they engaged in sexual coercion, were the targets of such coercion, both, or neither. The findings (p<.001) were consistent with widely held assumptions that men often coerce, whereas women are more often the targets of these acts. It also appears that, although men behave more coercively than women, both genders report coercing and being coerced, when investigatiors ask the appropriate questions of being coerced when investigators ask the appropriate questions of both men and women. Empirical reports indicating to methodological variations involving the specific wording of questions about coercion and differences in the interpretation of such questions by male and female research participants. The implications of genderspecific coercive tactics, reasons for compliance, and the effects of having been coerced are discussed.