The Parental Divorce Transition:

The Double ABC-X Model of family stress was used to develop a theoretical model of the parental divorce transition. Interview data from 125 former spouses with children were analyzed to investigate the relationship between divorce-related stressors and post divorce well-being. Divorce-related stressors included economic, housing, legal, parent-child, and former spouse components. Well-being included self-esteem, parenting satisfaction, and economic well-being. Using multivariate regression the results indicated that parents' divorce transition was characterized by major role shifts. For custodial mothers, economic well-being correlated negatively with legal stressors. Other significant independent variables were income during marriage, employment, education, number of children, and her remarriage. For noncustodial fathers, parenting satisfaction was correlated negatively with legal and parent-child stressors.     

The Contribution of Older Siblings' Reactions to Emotions to Preschoolers' Emotional and Social Competence

SUMMARY

According to Tompkins' (1991) theory on the socialization of emotion, young children's emotional and social competence are influenced by others' reactions to the children's emotions. Patterns of parental reactions to emotions have been shown to account for significant variance in preschoolers' emotion and social competence. However, the impact of others significant in the preschooler's life has been largely ignored. To help fill this gap, associations were examined between older siblings' reactions to 41 preschoolers' emotions and the preschoolers' social-emotional competence (i.e., affective balance, emotion knowledge, positive, prosocial, and provocative responding to peers' emotions, sociometric likability, and teacher-rated social competence). Using a multiple regression strategy, the contributions of sibling reactions and moderating demographic variables to preschooler emotional and social competence were evaluated. Certain sibling reactions, especially positive emotional responsiveness, were shown to play important roles. Many predictions were moderated by age of child, sex of one dyad member     

Children's Behavior and Mental Health Following Parental Divorce

The presence of behavioral disturbances and psychiatric symptoms (mental health); the reactions to the information about the divorce, and the self-image among 113 children were investigated 2-8 weeks after their parent's application for divorce. As a reference group for the mental health, 300 children from intact homes were used. No significant differences in behavioral disturbances/symptoms in total were found between the groups, between sexes, or between different age groups. However, 25% of the reported individual disturbances/symptoms had appeared or intensified at the time for the divorce, while 20% had disappeared or diminished. Strongest reactions to the information about the divorce were shown by children aged 7-13 years. The boys showed a more positive self-image compared to standardized norms. No significant diiference was found for the girls. In conclusion, the divorce per se did not seem to cause any shortterm mental health problems in the children.     

The Long Term Effect of Parental Divorce:

The present study examined the effects of a subject's sex, level of religiosity, and marital history of family origin on the development on marital role expectations in a sample of 80 college students. The results indicated that the marital roles expectations were a result of an interaction of the three variables examined. While it has been proposed that parental divorce leads to the development of "inappropriate" marital role expectations, the present study failed to support this conclusion. It appears that marital role development is the result of a complex interaction of a number of variables and not as easily explained as some would suggest. The differential influence of religiosity on the development of marital role expectation is discussed with implications for further research. The "role-model" rationale of the transmission of marital instability is discussed in light of these results.     

Alternative Formulas for Distributing Parental Incomes at Divorce

The current study applied five formulas for distributing parental incomes at divorce to 414 court case records in Minnesota and evaluated which formulas and actual court orders provided sufficient incomes for male and female-headed households. The study further explored influences of pre-divorce gross income levels, household/genders, and lengths of marriage on the post-divorce income-to-needs ratios (ITN) produced by the five formulas and actual court orders, using MANOVA. Results were interpreted using distributive justice principles of equity, needs, and contributions. Males have higher ITN with each alternative, except the income-sharing formula. The actual court orders and the income-sharing formula produce the largest discrepancy between male and female ITN and the highest percentage of females living below poverty level guidelines.Kathrine C. Daniels, University of Minnesota, 290 McNeal Hall, 1985 Buford Avenue, Saint Paul, MN 55108-6140; e-mail: dani0022@umn.edu.Kathryn D. Rettig, University of Minnesota, 290 McNeal Hall, 1985 Buford Avenue, Saint Paul, MN 55107-6140; e-mail: krettig@che.umn.edu.Robert delMas, General College of the University of Minnesota, 354 Appleby Hall, 28 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455; e-mail: delma001@umn.edu.This paper originated from Kathrine Daniels’ doctoral dissertation entitled, alternative strategies of dissolving the economic partnership of marriage. Further, the research was funded by a grant from The McKnight Foundation to the Child Support Enforcement Division of the Minnesota Department of Human Services, and a subcontract to the University of Minnesota Department of Family Social Science. Additional support was provided through a grant from, The University of Minnesota Center for Urban and Regional Affairs’ Faculty Interactive Research Program, as well as a project grant from the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Project 53–054, Decision-Making Integral to Relationship Transitions in Families, Kathryn D. Rettig, Principal Investigator.     

The Impact of Parental Divorce on College Adjustment

The prevalence of families experiencing divorce has lead to an increase in studies examining the consequences of divorce for children. Few studies have focused, however, on the possible consequences for the late adolescent/early adulthood group, and the literature concerning the impact of parental divorce on collcge ad- justment is even more sparse. The purpose of this study was to examine: (1) the impact of natural parent marital status on college adjustment; (2) the impact of Ule marital status of the custodial parent on college adjustment; and (3) the impact of age al parenlal divorce on college adjustment. The sample consisted of 341 respon- dents, 65 of whom were from divorced homes. The resulls indicated Ulat no statistically significant differences existed among student's college adjustment scores due lo the natural parent's marital slatus or the marital slatus of the custodial parent for students whose natural parenls were divorced. Age of the studenl at the time of Ihe parcnt's divorce was found to be a variable effecting college adjusunenl. Student's who were preschoolers at the time of thcir parent's divorce had signilicantly higher college adjustment scores than students who were school-age at the time of their parent's divorce.     

Relation Between Parental Divorce and Adjustment in College Students

The role of parental divorce on the adjustment of emerging adults has been understudied and mostly limited to first-year college students. This study sought to examine the relation between parental divorce and adjustment in college students to identify differences in students from intact and divorced families while also examining gender and age differences. Results indicated no adjustment differences as a whole or by gender for intact and divorced families. However, students who were older when their parents divorced had higher levels of self-esteem than those whose parents divorced when they were younger. Implications of the study are discussed.     

Positive Consequences of Parental Divorce Among Israeli Young Adults

Abstract

Within the framework of cognitive theories that define crisis as a challenge to self-development, this study explored the positive long-term outcomes of coping with parental divorce in young adults. Data were collected from self-reports of 158 Israeli young adults whose parents divorced when they were adolescents. Together with painful feelings, almost half the participants reported “more positive than negative outcomes” and less than a quarter thought that the divorce had “more negative than positive outcomes.” The various positive outcomes were found to form three constructs reflecting maturity and growth: empowerment, empathy, and relationship-savvy. Coping styles used by the participants proved strongly connected to long-term outcomes. Reciprocal support was the main coping style used by the young adults and their significant others, and was connected to positive long-term outcomes. Based on multiple regression analyses, the study proposes a sequential model that charts a developmental sequence that enhances long-term positive outcomes. These and other results are discussed within the framework of posttraumatic growth perspective.     

Moderators of Women's and Children's Adjustment Following Parental Divorce

This research sought to determine the strongest moderators of the relationship between the crisis of parental divorce and the psychosocial adjustment of divorced women and their dependent children. The current relationship with the ex-husband was the best predictor of divorcees' adjustment, while divorcees' happiness in their former marriages was most strongly related to their children's adjustment. The results were discussed in terms of their implications for the identification of and interventions with "high risk" divorced families.     

Family Stress and Organization Following Parental Divorce or Death

This study examines whether children of separation/divorce experience more associated family disorganization and stress than those from homes broken by parental death or from intact families. Ratings of childrens' levels and types of parental attention, family problems, and economic hardship were obtained on three independent samples. The findings indicate that divorce per se, and not the more general case of family dissolution, is significantly related to increased levels of family stressors for the child. Children with histories of parental separation/divorce were seen to be experiencing significantly lower levels of educational stimulation from parents, as well as greater parental rejection, economic stress, and general family problems than those from homes broken by parental death or from intact families. This relationship was consistent across independent year samples, referred and normal populations, and urban/suburban and rural samples. The implications of these findings for previously demonstrated differences in the school adjustment patterns of children with parental separation/divorce or death histories are elaborated, and the importance of considering stressors for the child which are associated with divorce in the planning of preventive interventions is discussed.     

Trajectory of Influence of Parental Divorce on Children's Heterosexual Relationships

This is a qualitative research study adopting a naturalistic paradigm in exploring the influence of parental divorce on childen's subsequent heterosexual relationship. Numerous studies have been conducted to verify the nature and extent of this influence though most of them adhere to the postivist-empirical tradition. However, the influence of parental divorce on children's subsequent heterosexual relationships is inherently an extremely complex human interactive process which is very difficult, if not impossible, to be understood through a positivist tradition which focuses more on verification rather than understanding. Gathered through a naturalistic paradigm, the data of this study reveal the complexity of the process involved "A trajectory of parental influence on children's heterosexual relationships" is proposed. The understanding of this process sheds light on the long-term effect of parental divorce on children regarding their adult heterosexual relationships. As such, this study bears significant implications for marital therapy to adult children of divorce.     

Parental and Environmental Determinants of Children's Behavioral,Affective and Cognitive Adjustment to Divorce

Children's adjustment to their parents' divorce was studied in relationship to interspousal hostility, single parenting skills, child-reported good and bad environmental events and time since separation using a sample of 23 boys and 16 girls between 6 and 11 years of age. Families were recruited through newspaper ads, schools and other community organizations. Their middle income parents were separated for between 5 and 60 months, were divorced and were not remarried. Adjustment was broadly defined to include the child's beliefs about divorce, parent-reported behavioral adjustment and child-reported emotional labeling/reactivity. All four independent variables were found to be significantly correlated with adjustment. The potency of hostility and bad events changed over time since separation. Single parenting skills remained associated with child outcome for families across the time period tapped. Some sex differences in the effects of good events emerged.     

Effects of Parental Divorce on Children's Financial Support for College Students

No-fault divorce laws, and the lowering of the age of minority from 21 to 18 years have combined to have unintended negative impact on the children of divorce. Previous research has shown that children whose parents are divorced are at increased risk for emotional problems and a reduced standard of living. This study was conducted to learn more about the effects of parental divorce on a young person's access to a college education. A questionnaire was developed to learn how students pay for college, and what non-financial support they receive from parents. The questionnaire was administered to a randomly selected sample 9 of 19 students at a state university. Findings indicated that young people whose parents were divorced received higher Pell grants, were more likely to provide more of their own necessities, and were more likely to repay their college loans themselves. Further, young people whose parents were divorced were much more likely to have their material and fnancial needs met by their custodial parents rather than their noncustodial parents. Implications are that young people with divorced parents may have less financial support for college from their family, and the support they receive is much more likely to come from their custodial than noncustodial parent. Changes in child support laws and financial aid policies are recommended.     

The Relationship Between Mandatory Divorce Education and Level of Post-Divorce Parental Conflict

Abstract

This study assessed the association between conflict between divorced parents and their attendance or nonattendance at a divorce education program. A telephone interview was done with 160 individuals who participated in the education program and 59 individuals who did not. Both males and females in the nonattendance group had higher conflict scores than the attendance group. Attendance at the divorce education class was found to be associated with whether a subject will return to court or not. Those who attended were less likely to return to court related to the divorce.     

Parental Marital Status and Young Adult Offspring's Attitudes About Marriage and Divorce

This study examined attitudes toward marriage and divorce among single young adults. Data were gathered from 310 traditional-aged college students regarding their perceived level of commitment to a future marriage and their likelihood to divorce should such a marriage become unsatisfying. Study results indicated that individuals who have experienced parental divorce reported lower levels of marital commitment and more prodivorce attitudes than their peers from intact families. These results suggest that attitudes toward marriage and divorce are partially preformulated beliefs individuals carry into their relationships. Implications for professionals working with young adults are discussed, along with directions for future research.     

Comparing the Effects of Amount of Conflict on Children's Adjustment Following Parental Divorce

This study examined the immediate and short-term effects on children of the conflict (as reflected by the level of court involvement) their family experiences during divorce proceedings. Families going through various levels of divorce (dissolution, divorce with little litigation, moderate litigation, and high levels of litigation) were investigated. Seventy-six parents (31 men and 45 women) between the ages of 22 and 53 who had children ranging in age from 2 to 17 years old participated. The Divorce Adjustment Inventory–Revised was completed by the parents immediately following the divorce hearing and again 6 months later. Results indicated that families experiencing a higher level of conflict (as measured by level of court involvement) displayed more family conflict or maladjustment, less favorable divorce conditions and child coping ability, and less positive divorce resolution. Implications of the study and indications for future research are discussed.     

A Prospective Study of Behavioural Disturbance in Children Who Subsequently Experience Parental Divorce

This study examines changes in children's behaviour as a function of parental divorce. As part of a large scale general population study on the effects of marital disharmony on children, 139 children from the general population were followed up from a previous study. These children and their mothers were interviewed first between 1979 and 1982 (time 1) and then followed up between 1984 and 1986 (time 2). Between the time 1 interview and the time 2 interview, 16 children's parents had separated or divorced. This paper deals with the mothers' report of changes in the behaviour of these children between time 1 and time 2 as a function of their parents' divorce, and compares this with changes in children's behaviour whose parents live in disharmonious (N = 40) or harmonious homes (N = 50). Children's reports of their own behaviour at time 2 are also presented. The data show that children in disharmonious homes and children whose parents subsequently divorce show higher levels of disturbance than children in harmonious homes. Children whose parents subsequently divorce show their disturbance prior to the divorce. Children's coping strategies in response to divorce were also investigated and and an association was found between children's behavioural problems and (a) self-blame and (b) not having friends whose parents had divorced.     

Domestic Violence and Parental Divorce as Predictors of Best Friendship Qualities Among College Students

Data regarding the effects of domestic violence and parental divorce have been inconsistent. Assessments of the effects of childhood trauma on psychosocial adjustment might be enhanced by an examination of the way developmental stressors interact. A total of 370 college students with histories of combinations of parental divorce and domestic violence participated in this correlational study of best friendships in early adulthood. College students exposed to domestic violence during childhood described their best friendships as relatively less reinforcing, helpful, and sustainable than those without the abuse history. Participants from intact families, as compared to those with parental divorce histories, described their best friendship as relatively more reinforcing and favorable. The combination of parental divorce and exposure to domestic violence was linked to magnified effects regarding these best friendship qualities. Average effect sizes for domestic violence (d?=?.31), parental divorce (d?=?.18), and the interaction between domestic abuse and divorce (d?=?.85) pointed to mild to modest links between these stressors and best friendship qualities. These results emphasized the benefits of interaction analysis in attempts to predict the adverse effects of developmental stressors on late psychological functioning.     

The Decision to Divorce

The decision to terminate an unhappy marriage through obtaining a divorce is almost never an easy decision for either spouse. It is usually reached only after other options and alternatives have been considered and then rejected as non-viable solutions to the problems that have developed between the spouses. As Bernard (1970: 3) has noted, despite the increasing frequency of its occurence, "It is not likely that divorce will ever become matterof- fact, nor that it will ever become painless or casual or nonchalant . . . It will probably always be an extremely painful experience for most people, as breaking close ties always is, even outside marriage." From this perspective, our coming to terms with divorce means only that we recognize its inevitability in many cases and try to mitigate some of the worst of its consequences. In this paper we review the process through which a sample of 500 respondents reached the decision to obtain a divorce. Specifically, major problems that existed in their relationship that prompted them to finally seek a legal termination of their union will be considered. In addition, we will examine barriers that had to be overcome before that decision was finally reached as well as major sources of social support that encouraged the decision. We will begin with a brief theoretical review of the major orientations that have been developed in the literature to account for the process through which the individual ultimately decides to seek a divorce.