Sexual Violence on the College Campus: A Template for Compliance With Federal Policy

Objective: The author introduces a template, the Model Policy for the Prevention and Response to Sexual Assault, to assist institutions of higher education to benchmark campus policy compliance with federal laws directed at sexual assault. The author presents a detailed review of policy criteria recommended by the National Institute of Justice. The author proposes 2 unique criteria not found in the National Institute of Justice report for consideration for a comprehensive campus sexual assault policy. Conclusion: The template provides an inclusive system to benchmark campus sexual assault policies. Conforming to the template provides compliance with federal laws and demonstrates that the campus fosters a climate that does not tolerate sexual violence.     

Law,campus policy,social movements,and sexual violence: Where do we stand in the #MeToo movement?

In the last 8 years, activist pressure has increased attention to sexual violence at universities. Most recently, the #MeToo movement has widened the conversation about sexual violence. This increased public attention has coincided with changes in federal guidelines, state laws, and campus policies on sexual violence as well as social movement activity by survivor‐activists and emerging counter‐movements. I argue that sociologists—specifically researchers who study gender and/or law and society—are uniquely situated to contribute to the study of sexual violence on campus. I synthesize a growing sociological and interdisciplinary literature on sexual violence—legal changes, policy effects, and social movement struggles—in order to advocate that sociologists study laws, campus policies, and social movements simultaneously.     

Patient Problems Encountered at a Student Health Service

Abstract

Objective: To assess how Ohio colleges conform to recommendations that address barriers to reporting sexual assault. Participants: A study sample of Ohio 4-year colleges (N = 105). Methods: College Web sites were examined between March and November 2011 for their availability of sexual assault policies using 8 measures. Results: Of the colleges in the sample, 66% had an online sexual assault policy. Less than 1% of colleges included definitions for applicable sexual offenses in the Ohio Revised Code. All colleges with a policy included on-campus personnel to whom a victim could report. Approximately 25% and 31% of colleges included confidential or 24/7 reporting options, respectively. Conclusions: Many colleges are failing to offer basic reporting options to victims of sexual assault. Having a clearly labeled sexual assault policy on a campus Web site that includes 24/7 reporting options and defines acts of sexual assault can aid victims in the reporting process.     

Conveying campus sexual misconduct policy information to college and university students: Results from a 7-campus study

ABSTRACT

Objective: To examine the efficacy of different methods (ie, in-class policy reading; in-class policy reading and discussion; no reading or discussion) to deliver campus sexual misconduct policy information to students on 7 campuses. Participants: A total of 1,195 participants at 7 colleges and universities participated in the study from August to October 2014. Participants were randomly assigned at the class level and completed pretest and posttest surveys assessing knowledge of campus policy and resources and confidence to seek help for sexual assault. Results: Students exposed to a larger dosage of material (in-class policy reading plus discussion) showed greater positive changes in attitudes and knowledge than students who did not receive information or were only read the policy. However, on some indices, students who were only read the policy showed positive outcomes compared with students receiving no intervention. Conclusion: Colleges and universities must use engaging methods to disseminate campus sexual misconduct policies to students.     

Quantifying the magnitude and potential influence of missing data in campus sexual assault surveys: A systematic review of surveys, 2010–2016

Objective: To understand how missing data may influence conclusions drawn from campus sexual assault surveys. Methods: We systematically reviewed 40 surveys from 2010–2016. We constructed a pseudo-population of the total population targeted across schools, creating records proportional to the respective response rate and reported sexual assault prevalence. We simulated the effects of 9 scenarios where the sexual assault prevalence among nonresponders differed from that of responders. Results: The surveys represented a total female undergraduate population of 317,387 with only 77,966 (24.6%) survey responses. Among responders, 20.4% reported experiences of sexual assault. However, prevalence of sexual assault could theoretically range from 5.0 to 80.4% under extreme assumptions about prevalence in nonresponders. Smaller, but still significant differences were observed with less extreme assumptions. Conclusions: Missing data are widespread in campus sexual assault surveys. Conclusions drawn from these incomplete data are highly sensitive to assumptions about the sexual assault prevalence among nonresponders.     

Examining the Institutional Features Influencing Sexual Assault at Small Colleges and Universities*

This article explores the relationships between institutional features of small college and university campuses and the levels of reported sexual assault. Using the mandated reporting of crime on campus through the Clery Act, we look at the combined levels of reported sexual assault for the years 2012 and 2013 at the main campuses of all accredited non‐profit, four‐year, residential, undergraduate colleges and universities in the United States that have a student body size of 2,000–2,999 students, N = 198. We find that the presence of a Greek life system, alcohol policy, religious affiliation, and the proportion of male students all influence the levels of reported sexual assault at colleges and universities, with alcohol policy being the strongest influence.     

Measuring and reporting campus sexual assault: Privilege and exclusion in what we know and what we do

As awareness of and national attention to campus sexual assault in the U.S. has grown, efforts to study and respond to the problem have increased. While these efforts are to be applauded, they have yet to fully challenge or correct the privileged and exclusive perspectives and assumptions regarding student experiences of campus sexual assault. Specifically, the experiences of white, heterosexual, cisgender, middle‐class, and American citizens who are students at primarily elite, traditional colleges and universities are taken as the norm, while experiences of students of color, LGBTQ students, and international students are neglected. Here we examine two primary sources of information regarding campus sexual assault: large‐scale self‐report surveys and individual reporting to authorities. We first review the content of select large‐scale surveys used to gather and measure self‐reported data from students on the scope, prevalence, and character of campus sexual assault, and identify areas of omission and neglect regarding marginalized students. We then review literature on barriers to reporting to authorities specific to these groups that further exclude them from our understanding of the problem. We end with recommendations for improved efforts to study and respond to campus sexual assault that are more inclusive and comprehensive.     

Towards a policy for aging in India

India has been engaged in developing the National Policy for elderly for the last two decades. The efforts to establish a policy began building on traditional values, a small number of pre-independence enactments. Lawgivers of India spoke of the rights of the elderly and the responsibility of the state towards them almost 2000 years ago. Additional factors such as culture, social norms, and influence of international organizations, particularly the Vienna Plan of Action, have been responsible for shaping the Policy. The Plan of Action agreed upon at the end of the Vienna meeting could not come into being due to several reasons such as the size of the country and its federal structure. This article takes an overview of the efforts made by the federal government and the NGOs to create a National Policy. The article describes the process by which the National Policy came into being and provides an overview and critique of the present Policy. The author makes a summary of the major areas of action suggested by the Policy, the strategies designed, and the implementation roles of different Ministries. The author describes the steps taken since 1999 and provides the concluding remarks.     

The magnitude and potential impact of missing data in a sexual violence campus climate survey

Abstract

Objective: Assess the impact of survey non-response and non-completion for a campus climate survey. Participants: Intended for all degree-seeking students at a large, public, midwestern university, November 2014. Methods: The survey covered sexual assault experiences and related attitudes. We identify the magnitude and potential impact of survey non-response by comparing demographic data between respondents and non-respondents, sexual assault prevalence between early and late respondents, and demographic and attitudinal data between survey completers and partial completers. Results: Demographic groups were differentially represented in the survey. Sexual assault prevalence based on survey results may be underestimated for men, overestimated for women. Sensitive questions did not increase drop-off. Students completing more of the survey differed from those completing less. Conclusions: Colleges must plan survey administration and data sensitivity analysis to reduce potential for bias. Resources for sexual assault-related needs based on estimates from campus climate surveys with high non-response will likely be misallocated.     

Towards a Policy for Aging in India

Summary

India has been engaged in developing the National Policy for elderly for the last two decades. The efforts to establish a policy began building on traditional values, a small number of pre-independence enactments. Lawgivers of India spoke of the rights of the elderly and the responsibility of the state towards them almost 2000 years ago. Additional factors such as culture, social norms, and influence of international organizations, particularly the Vienna Plan of Action, have been responsible for shaping the Policy. The Plan of Action agreed upon at the end of the Vienna meeting could not come into being due to several reasons such as the size of the country and its federal structure. This article takes an overview of the efforts made by the federal government and the NGOs to create a National Policy. The article describes the process by which the National Policy came into being and provides an overview and critique of the present Policy. The author makes a summary of the major areas of action suggested by the Policy, the strategies designed, and the implementation roles of different Ministries. The author describes the steps taken since 1999 and provides the concluding remarks.     

College Women's Experiences with Physically Forced,Alcohol- or Other Drug-Enabled,and Drug-Facilitated Sexual Assault Before and Since Entering College

Objective: Research has shown associations between college women's alcohol and/or drug consumption and the risk of sexual assault, but few studies have measured the various means by which sexual assault is achieved.

Participants: The authors' Campus Sexual Assault Study obtained self-report data from a random sample of undergraduate women (N = 5,446).

Methods: The authors collected data on sexual assault victimization by using a cross-sectional, Web-based survey, and they conducted analyses assessing the role of substance use. The authors also compared victimizations before and during college, and across years of study.

Results: Findings indicate that almost 20% of undergraduate women experienced some type of completed sexual assault since entering college. Most sexual assaults occurred after women voluntarily consumed alcohol, whereas few occurred after women had been given a drug without their knowledge or consent.

Conclusions: The authors discuss implications for campus sexual assault prevention programs, including the need for integrated substance use and sexual victimization prevention programming.     

Routine activities and sexual assault: an analysis of individual- and school-level factors

The efficacy of routine activities theory is examined to explain sexual assault on the college campus. Although many research studies have utilized routine activities theory to predict sexual assault using individual-level factors, little is known about the effect of school-level factors on a student's risk of sexual assault. Based on interviews from 3,036 randomly selected students and surveys from 11 randomly selected colleges in the United States, a hierarchical linear model was created to predict student victimizations by school characteristics. For the individual, results reveal that being female, drug use, and marital status are statistically significant for predicting the probability of a sexual assault. At the institutional level, however, none of the variables are significant in predicting sexual assault among college coeds. Policy implications for prevention measures on college campuses are discussed.     

A systematic analysis of college substance use policies

College substance use policies provide guidelines for student behavior and influence campus culture. Although they are the primary environmental strategy to address campus substance use, policies have not been systematically compared and studied. We constructed a systematic review method to examine the accessibility, comprehensiveness, enforcement procedures, and clarity of college substance use policies. We developed an objective evaluation scheme for each of these 4 dimensions and then applied it to documented substance use policies from a sample of colleges and universities (N = 24). Policies were found to vary considerably but tended to specify compliance with local laws and emphasize student health and well-being. The next stage of campus policy review should examine actual implementation, evaluate potential differentiating factors among institutions, and assess the influence of policy on campus climate and student outcomes.     

Black Women's experiences of sexual assault and disclosure: Insights from the margins

Black women experience higher rates of sexual assault or rape than their White counterparts and the U.S. Department of Justice finds only one Black woman out of 15 will report her rape. This article reviews the literature on the ways in which Black women's sexual assault disclosure experiences are framed by their unique social space at the margins of society due to systemic oppression based on race, gender, and class (Settles, Pratt‐Hyatt, and Buchanan). We situate this review around three major areas of marginalization: (a) the delegitimization of Black women as victims of rape, (b) the social construction of Black women as inordinately strong, and (c) the sanctioning of intraracial sexual assault disclosure. Despite a call for action by Angela Davis in 1985, Black women's unique and varied intersectional experiences around sexual assault and disclosure are understudied. We implore scholars to continue this important research and conclude this article with insights on future research and activism.     

Trends in the prevalence and characteristics of sexual violence: a cohort analysis

Although recent statistics hint that rates of reported rape and child sexual abuse began to decline in the 1990s, little is known about changes in the characteristics of victimizations over time or about the implications of these changes for policy and services. This investigation uses data from a general population survey to examine sexual assault trends in two ways: by age cohort and by historical era in which a first sexual assault experience occurred. Findings suggest that the lifetime prevalence of sexual assault has not significantly changed across cohorts of women in their 20s to 50s. Characteristics of women's experiences across cohorts may be shifting, however, with early childhood experiences of sexual victimization showing a slight decline, accompanied by increases in assault rates during adolescence. Additionally, although help-seeking among victims has increased, women's perceptions of their community's responsiveness have worsened slightly. Research and intervention implications are discussed.     

A Systematic Analysis of College Substance Use Policies

College substance use policies provide guidelines for student behavior and influence campus culture. Although they are the primary environmental strategy to address campus substance use, policies have not been systematically compared and studied. We constructed a systematic review method to examine the accessibility, comprehensiveness, enforcement procedures, and clarity of college substance use policies. We developed an objective evaluation scheme for each of these 4 dimensions and then applied it to documented substance use policies from a sample of colleges and universities (N = 24). Policies were found to vary considerably but tended to specify compliance with local laws and emphasize student health and well-being. The next stage of campus policy review should examine actual implementation, evaluate potential differentiating factors among institutions, and assess the influence of policy on campus climate and student outcomes.     

Bystander Attitudes to Prevent Sexual Assault: A Study of College Students in the United States,Japan, India,Vietnam, and China

College women are at a high risk of sexual assault. Although programs that aim to change bystander behaviors have been shown to be potentially effective in preventing sexual assault on campuses in the United States, little is known about bystander behaviors outside of the United States. The purpose of this study was to explore and compare factors affecting bystander behaviors regarding sexual assault intervention and prevention among undergraduate students in the United States, Japan, India, Vietnam, and China. A total of 1,136 students participated in a self-reported survey. Results demonstrate substantial variations across countries. Bystander behaviors are associated with multilevel factors, including gender, knowledge of individuals who have experienced a sexual assault, and knowledge about campus or community organizations.     

Demographic and situational factors affecting injury, resistance, completion, and charges brought in sexual assault cases: what is best for arrest?

This study examines demographic and situational factors in an effort to predict whether or not a complainant was injured, used resistance, experienced a completed assault, and whether charges were brought against the offender. If the accused had consumed alcohol or drugs, he was almost seven times more likely to be arrested. The complainant was six times more likely to report rape completion if she had consumed alcohol or drugs and if the complainant fell unconscious at any time during the attack she was significantly less likely to use a resistance strategy. The complainant's use of a compliance strategy at any time during the assault positively predicted not using a physical resistance strategy and sexual assault completion. The reporting of injury positively predicted use a physical resistance strategy and sexual assault completion. If the assault was completed, it was less likely that charges were pressed. Implications of these findings are discussed, and directions for future research are offered.     

What survivors want: Understanding the needs of sexual assault survivors

Objective: Sexual assault is a pervasive crime on our college campuses and many survivors do not seek post-assault resources. This study will explore components of alternative interventions to consider in the development of campus-based interventions for sexual assault survivors. Participants: Three stakeholder groups including survivors (n = 8), healthcare providers (n = 6), and advocates (n = 19) were recruited from May 2014 to December 2014 from two university campus communities using flyers and purposive sampling. Methods: A qualitative study design utilized semi-structured interviews and semi-structured focus groups with survivors, healthcare providers, and advocates. Results: Five themes emerged to consider for future campus-based sexual assault interventions: (a) culture of caring, (b) one-stop shop, (c) validation, (d) survivor control and agency, and (e) confidentiality. Conclusions: Although accessible and effective options for post-assault care do currently exist, participants described alternative future interventions that were either (a) print materials or (b) technology-based.     

Service Patterns of Adult Survivors of Childhood Versus Adult Sexual Assault/Abuse

This analysis compared the characteristics and service patterns of adult survivors of childhood sexual assault/abuse and adult survivors of adult sexual assault/abuse. Utilizing data from sexual assault crisis centers serving survivors in a Midwestern state over a six year period and controlling for revictimization, we describe and compare the demographic characteristics, referral sources, and service patterns of the two groups. Results indicate that paths into service differ for the two groups. Furthermore, adult survivors of childhood sexual assault/abuse obtain significantly more hours of service and service contacts on average than adult survivors of adult sexual assault/abuse. Implications for policy and practice are discussed.