Changes in Risk Perceptions Prospectively Predict Changes in Self‐Reported Speeding

Risk perception theories posit that changes in risk perception prompt subsequent changes in risk behavior. Prospective studies using observations made at three time‐points offer the capacity to test this hypothesis by observing sequential changes in both risk perceptions and behavior. A telephone survey was administered by random‐digit dialing to 255 adult Australian drivers at baseline (T1), 6 weeks (T2), and 14 weeks (T3). During weeks 2–5, a risk‐perception‐based anti‐speeding mass media campaign was conducted. The survey assessed risk perception, operationalized as the proportion of time that driving at 70 km/h (43 mph) was perceived to be dangerous, and self‐reported speeding behavior, defined as the frequency of respondents driving 5 km (3 mph) faster than the legal speed limit in built up areas. Higher T2 risk perception predicted lower T3 self‐reports of speeding after controlling T1 risk perception and T1 and T2 self‐reported speeding. This can be interpreted as changes in risk perceptions between T1 and T2 predicting changes in speeding between T2 and T3. Further analyses showed that increases in risk perception predicted lower subsequent self‐reported speeding changes, but decreases in risk perception were unrelated to those changes. Risk perception changes were unrelated to recall of exposure to the media campaign. These findings support a dynamic view of the relationship between risk perception and self‐reported behavior, and that risk perception theories can be applied to speeding.     

Love of life and death distress: two separate factors

The objectives of the current investigation were threefold: a) to explore the gender differences on love of life (a new construct in the well-being domain) and death distress (death anxiety, death depression, and death obsession); b) to explore the relationship between the scales of these constructs; and c) to examine the factorial structure of these scales. The sample was 245 volunteer Kuwaiti college students (53.5% women). Their mean age was 21.9 (SD = 2.3). They responded to the Love of Life Scale, the Death Anxiety Scale, the Arabic Scale of Death Anxiety, the Death Depression Scale-Revised, and the Death Obsession Scale. Gender differences on love of life were not significant. However, women had significantly higher mean scores for the four death distress scales than did their male counterparts. All the correlations between love of life and the death distress scales were not significant except one pertaining to love of life and death depression (negative) in women. Two oblique factors were extracted: death distress and love of life. It was concluded that these constructs represent two distinct and independent factors. Counselors and clinicians dealing with death distress would find that it is not associated with love of life.     

A reduced form of the Workplace Bullying Scale – the EAPA-T-R: A useful instrument for daily diary and experience sampling studies

The need for more longitudinal studies (i.e. daily diary and experience sampling studies) focused on counterproductive work behaviours such as bullying requires shorter scales that at the same time do not compromise their content validity. Our main objective is to develop and validate a reduced version of the Workplace Bullying Scale (Escala de Abuso Psicológico Aplicado en el Lugar de Trabajo): the EAPA-T-R. Two studies (Study 1: 1506 and Study 2: 932 employees, respectively) were conducted to evaluate its psychometric properties and to ensure the external validity of the EAPA-T-R. Correlation and regression analyses were performed to reduce the current 12-item scale to a more parsimonious 4-item scale. Moreover, the psychometric properties of potential models were compared. Subsequently, the new scale was assessed using confirmatory factor analysis. Likewise, statistically significant relationships were found between the EAPA-T-R and other dimensions evaluated, such as job characteristics, transformational leadership, engagement, job satisfaction, and subjective performance. Moreover, bullying mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and burnout. To sum up, the EAPA-T-R showed good reliability and validity across studies, supporting its use in future research. The benefits of this short scale for daily diary and experience sampling studies and when using large surveys are discussed.     

Sensation seeking predicts risky driving behavior: The mediating role of difficulties in emotion regulation

The purpose of this study was to explore the mediating effect of difficulties in emotion regulation on the relationship between sensation seeking and driving behavior based on the dual-process model of aberrant driving behavior. A sample of 299 drivers in China completed the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale, the Driver Behavior Questionnaire, and the Sensation Seeking Scale V (SSS). The relationships among sensation seeking, difficulties in emotion regulation, and driving behavior were investigated using pathway analysis. The results showed that (1) disinhibition and boredom susceptibility are positively and significantly related to difficulties in emotion regulation and risky driving behaviors; (2) difficulties in emotion regulation are positively and significantly associated with risky driving behaviors; (3) difficulties in emotion regulation mediate the effect of sensation seeking on driving behaviors, supporting the dual-process model of driving behavior; and (4) professional drivers score higher in terms of difficulties in emotion regulation and risky driving behaviors than nonprofessional drivers. The findings of this study could provide valuable insights into the selection of suitable drivers and the development of certain programs that benefit road safety.     

Empowering leadership: Construct clarification,conceptualization, and validation of a new scale

In this paper we discuss key aspects of empowering leadership as a basis for conceptualizing and operationalizing the construct. The conceptualization resulted in eight behavioral manifestations arranged within three influence processes, which were investigated in a sample of 317 subordinates in Study 1. The results supported the validity and reliability of a two-dimensional, 18-item instrument, labeled the Empowering Leadership Scale (ELS). In Study 2 (N = 215) and Study 3 (N = 831) the factor structure of ELS was cross-validated in two independent samples from different work settings. Preliminary concurrent validation in Studies 1 and 2 found that ELS had a positive relationship to several subordinate variables, among others self-leadership and psychological empowerment. In Study 3 ELS was compared with scales measuring leader–member exchange (LMX) and transformational leadership. Discriminant validity was supported, and moreover, ELS showed incremental validity beyond LMX and transformational leadership when predicting psychological empowerment.     

Does an attractive partner make you a better leader? Only if you are a male!

We integrate the research on evolutionary leadership with the evolutionary psychology of mate choice to argue that a facially attractive partner signals unobservable leadership qualities of their mate, and thus, partner's attractiveness spills over to their mate's perceived leadership. Study 1 found that while partner's attractiveness enhanced the perceived leadership of male CEOs, female CEOs' leadership was downgraded in the presence of an attractive partner. Study 2 validated that the leadership penalty for female CEOs increased when they were seen with more attractive males than with less attractive males. Study 3 found that conservative candidates that were male benefitted more from an attractive partner than their liberal counterparts but female candidates were penalized regardless of political ideology. Our findings suggest that indirect cues that emanate from the partner are critical for leadership assessment. They invoke attributions that enhance the perceived leadership of males but disapprove of females as leaders.     

Lack of reciprocity among Dutch teachers: Validation of reciprocity indices and their relation to stress and well-being

This research presents the results of two related studies on the convergent and construct validity of three measures of reciprocity in exchange relationships at work. In Study 1, 71 Dutch teachers were interviewed about their specific investments and outcomes in the exchange relationships with their students, colleagues and school. ANOVA revealed that they reported significantly more investments than outcomes, and that the number of reported investments and outcomes mentioned varied as a function of the type of exchange relationship. Building on these results, multi-item scales were created to assess reciprocity at a detailed level for each of the three exchange relationships. Study 2 validated these specific reciprocity measures by relating them to two global assessments of reciprocity (convergent validity) as well as to measures of job stress and well-being (construct validity). LISREL-analysis of data obtained from a further sample of 224 teachers revealed that for each type of exchange relationship there were significant, consistent and meaningful relationships among the three reciprocity measures. Further, hierarchical regression analysis showed that the reciprocity measures were differentially related to job stressors and measures of well-being. Implications are discussed.     

Lack of reciprocity among Dutch teachers: Validation of reciprocity indices and their relation to stress and well-being

This research presents the results of two related studies on the convergent and construct validity of three measures of reciprocity in exchange relationships at work. In Study 1, 71 Dutch teachers were interviewed about their specific investments and outcomes in the exchange relationships with their students, colleagues and school. ANOVA revealed that they reported significantly more investments than outcomes, and that the number of reported investments and outcomes mentioned varied as a function of the type of exchange relationship. Building on these results, multi-item scales were created to assess reciprocity at a detailed level for each of the three exchange relationships. Study 2 validated these specific reciprocity measures by relating them to two global assessments of reciprocity (convergent validity) as well as to measures of job stress and well-being (construct validity). LISREL-analysis of data obtained from a further sample of 224 teachers revealed that for each type of exchange relationship there were significant, consistent and meaningful relationships among the three reciprocity measures. Further, hierarchical regression analysis showed that the reciprocity measures were differentially related to job stressors and measures of well-being. Implications are discussed.     

Labels and leaders: The influence of framing on leadership emergence

In two studies, this paper examines the influence of task framing on leadership emergence in mixed-gender dyads. In Study 1, we found that males are more likely to emerge as leaders when a paper-folding task is framed as masculine (i.e., Building Project) relative to feminine (i.e., Art Project). Furthermore, females are more likely to emerge as leaders when a paper-folding task is framed as feminine relative to masculine. In Study 2, we conceptually replicate these results using a weaving task (framed as Knot-Tying Task vs. Hair-Braiding Task) and find that perceived competence is the mechanism through which task framing affects leadership emergence. Taken together, these results suggest that task framing can influence the emergence of leaders because of changes in perceptions of competence. These findings are discussed in the context of related theoretical findings and managerial implications are elaborated on.     

Risk Perceptions and Trust Following the 2010 and 2011 Icelandic Volcanic Ash Crises

Eruptions at the Icelandic volcanoes of Eyjafjallajökull (2010) and Grimsvötn (2011) produced plumes of ash posing hazards to air traffic over northern Europe. In imposing restrictions on air traffic, regulators needed to balance the dangers of accidents or aircraft damage against the cost and inconvenience to travelers and industry. Two surveys examined how members of the public viewed the necessity of the imposed restrictions and their trust in different agencies as estimators of the level of risk. Study 1 was conducted with 213 British citizens (112 males, 101 females), who completed questionnaires while waiting for flights at London City Airport during May 2012. Study 2 involved an online survey of 301 Icelandic citizens (172 males, 127 females, 2 undeclared gender) during April 2012. In both samples, there was general support for the air traffic restrictions, especially among those who gave higher estimates of the likelihood of an air accident or mishap having otherwise happened. However, in both countries, the (minority of) respondents who had personally experienced travel disruption were less convinced that these restrictions were all necessary. Scientists, the International Civil Aviation Organization, and (in Iceland) the Icelandic Department of Civil Protection were all highly trusted, and seen as erring on the side of caution in their risk estimates. Airlines were seen as more likely to underestimate any risk. We conclude that perceptions of the balance between risk and caution in judgments under uncertainty are influenced by one's own motives and those attributed to others.     

Age and Gender Differences in Perceived Accident Likelihood and Driver Competences

Road traffic accident involvement rates show clear age and gender differences which may in part be accounted for by differences in risk perception and perceptions of driving competence. The present study extends and replicates that of Matthews and Moran (1986). Young (18–30 years) and older (45–60 years) male and female drivers responded to a questionnaire on perceived accident risk and driving competence (judgment and skill) with respect to themselves and four target groups, and also rated a series of videotaped driving sequences with respect to likelihood of accident occurrence and perceived driving competence. Results showed that effects of rater characteristics were generally confined to the questionnaire. Younger males were perceived as most likely to experience an accident and were judged to be lower than other groups in driving competence. Younger groups showed little bias against older groups and vice versa , but gender-related bias was apparent. The findings of Matthews and Moran were generally confirmed. The results are discussed with reference to four main issues: (1) demographic bias effects—which are generally weak; (2) stereotyping on the basis of gender and/or age of driver; (3) group-specific bias; (4) self-appraisal bias.     

Study-work satisfaction and psychological distress in older university students

In order to study the relationships between work satisfaction and mental health in a group known to be at risk for psychological distress, university students who were somewhat older than usual (n=568, average age 24 years) provided infomiation by questionnaire about their satisfactions from study and paid work, and their level of psychological distress. The measure of study satisfaction was a modified form of Warr et al.'s (1979) Job Satisfaction Scale, and had good reliability. Study satisfaction waslower for undergraduate than for postgraduate students, due to lack of clearly defined identity, less supportive relations with fellow-students and teaching staff, and financial hardship. For all subjects the availability of teacher support predicted study satisfaction, and study satisfaction had a major influence on the students' psychologcal well-being.     

Risk Perceptions of Mobile Phone Use While Driving

Numerous governments have introduced regulations governing the use of mobile (cellular) telephones while driving. Despite significant research into the "objective" risks, there is relatively little research into risk perceptions either in relation to other in-car distractions or with respect to the factors underlying such perceptions. The current article reports on two studies addressing these issues. Study 1 ( N = 199) found that whereas the use of hand-held sets is seen as one of the riskiest activities to perform while driving, the risks of using a hands-free kit are perceived to be relatively small. Study 2 ( N = 1,320) found that nearly half of all drivers in the sample with a mobile phone reported having used it while driving and that, overall, the probability of having an accident was perceived to be less for oneself than for one's peers, indicating an optimistic bias. Two factors underpinned risk perceptions, "impact" including perceived severity and equitability, and "controllability" including immediacy, detectability, and probability. While higher "impact" scores were associated with increased preferences for restrictions on the use of hand-held mobiles while driving, the "controllability" scores moderated this relationship such that when perceived "controllability" was low, restriction preferences were high irrespective of perceived "impact." However, when "controllability" was high, restriction preferences remained high when "impact" was high but were low when "impact" was low. Given the growing number of in-car technological innovations, it is suggested that regulators act strategically, rather than finding themselves developing a series of "hazard-specific" regulations, which may ultimately lack coherence.     

Corporate Managers' Reactions to Assertive Social Skills Exhibited by Males and Females

While a number of investigators have suggested that assertiveness is an important interpersonal skill for both males and females in work-related settings, few studies have empirically evaluated how corporate managers react to assertiveness exhibited by others. The current study examined whether managers react differently to identical assertive responses made by females versus by males, and also compared manager reactions to several different types of verbal content in assertive responses. The procedure consisted of presenting managers with taped vignettes that showed either a male or female model handling several work-related conflicts assertively. The portrayed models were either directly assertive, assertive but moderating their assertion with an empathic comment to the antagonist in the situation, or assertive but tempering the response with a self-effacing comment. Based on interpersonal evaluation ratings completed later by the managers, self-effacing assertive models of both sexes were rated unfavorably relative to either directly assertive or empathic-assertive models. Empathic comments preceding an assertive response resulted in more favorable manager reactions on several criteria. Finally, on almost all measures, assertive behavior exhibited by females was evaluated as positively as the same behavior exhibited by males. Implications for assertive training of males and females in the business setting are considered.     

Gender differences in entrepreneurial intentions: A TPB multi-group analysis at factor and indicator level

Previous research suggests that diverse factors predict gender differences in entrepreneurial intent. Our paper integrates and expands on previous findings using the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), including the deeper-level measurement model, allowing for a better understanding of the origin of differences. The results of a survey with business students indicate that the effect of gender on entrepreneurial intentions is mediated via personal attitudes and perceived behavioral control but not social norms. More precisely, vis-à-vis their male counterparts, women are more driven toward entrepreneurship by motives to ‘get organized’ (balance) that are less dominant in predicting personal attitude. Moreover, female students are somewhat less driven toward entrepreneurship by beliefs of internal control that are more dominant in predicting perceived control. Finally, while female students are also more motivated to comply with normative role models, this did not influence their entrepreneurial intentions over and above perceived behavioral control and personal attitude. We discuss both practical and theoretical implications of our findings.     

Dimensions of the psychosocial work environment in a sample of the US metropolitan population

The present study investigates the dimensional structure of the psychosocial work environment as assessed by Karasek's job characteristics scales and a set of factorial scales derived from the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) observers' ratings of occupational characteristics for census occupations. Scale scores on the Karasek and DOT were linked to information on occupation from the Epidemiologc Catchment Area (ECA) study sample. Scale intercorreladons and factor analysis were performed on those ECA subjects who reported ever having a full-time job (n=11,789). DOT'sS Substantive Complexity scale was positively correlated with Karasek's Skill Discretion and Decision Authority scales, and DOT's Physical Demands and Hazards scale was positively correlated with Karasek's Physical Demands scale. In addition, the DOT system compared to the Karasek system seems to assess psychosocial work domains less characteristic of traditional industrial jobs (interpersonal stress, expressive work). The content validity of the Karasek scales might be increased with the assessment of these domains. Giving support to Karasek's Demand/Control Model, the factor structure of the psychosocial work enviromnent in the probability sample of five US metropolitan populations yielded two major dimensions: Control, and Physical Demands.     

Choosing the best (wo)man for the job: The effects of mortality salience,sex, and gender stereotypes on leader evaluations

The present research investigated the impact of death-related thoughts on preferences for male and female leaders and tested alternative predictions derived from terror management theory: the stereotype bias effect was predicted to result in a global preference for male leaders (Study1) and a preference for agentic leaders (Study 2), whereas the ingroup bias effect was predicted to result in women favoring female leaders and men preferring male leaders. These hypotheses were examined in two experimental studies wherein participants were presented with a mortality salience or control manipulation and subsequently presented with campaign statements from male and female gubernatorial candidates. Results from Study 1 were in accord with the enhanced ingroup bias predictions: under mortality salience women preferred and voted for the female candidate more so than the male candidate, while men showed the reverse preference. Results from Study 2, which also manipulated gender stereotypic traits of the candidates, support the enhanced stereotype bias effect: under mortality salience female participants preferred and voted for the agentic candidate regardless of sex, and males preferred the agentic male candidate. Results support previous TMT research demonstrating both ingroup bias and stereotype bias processes.     

A Monte Carlo Risk Assessment Model for Acrylamide Formation in French Fries

The objective of this study is to estimate the likely human exposure to the group 2a carcinogen, acrylamide, from French fries by Irish consumers by developing a quantitative risk assessment model using Monte Carlo simulation techniques. Various stages in the French-fry-making process were modeled from initial potato harvest, storage, and processing procedures. The model was developed in Microsoft Excel with the @Risk add-on package. The model was run for 10,000 iterations using Latin hypercube sampling. The simulated mean acrylamide level in French fries was calculated to be 317 μg/kg. It was found that females are exposed to smaller levels of acrylamide than males (mean exposure of 0.20 μg/kg bw/day and 0.27 μg/kg bw/day, respectively). Although the carcinogenic potency of acrylamide is not well known, the simulated probability of exceeding the average chronic human dietary intake of 1 μg/kg bw/day (as suggested by WHO) was 0.054 and 0.029 for males and females, respectively. A sensitivity analysis highlighted the importance of the selection of appropriate cultivars with known low reducing sugar levels for French fry production. Strict control of cooking conditions (correlation coefficient of 0.42 and 0.35 for frying time and temperature, respectively) and blanching procedures (correlation coefficient −0.25) were also found to be important in ensuring minimal acrylamide formation.     

Communicating about the Risks and Benefits of Genetically Modified Foods: The Mediating Role of Trust

Recent research suggests that public attitudes toward emerging technologies are mainly driven by trust in the institutions promoting and regulating these technologies. Alternative views maintain that trust should be seen as a consequence rather than a cause of such attitudes. To test its actual role, direct as well as mediating effects of trust were tested in an attitude change experiment involving 1,405 consumers from Denmark, Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom. After prior attitudes to genetic modification in food production had been assessed, participants received different information materials (either product-specific information or balanced/general information about genetic modification in food production) and were asked to evaluate different types of genetically modified foods (either beer or yoghurt). The information materials were attributed to different information sources (either an industry association, a consumer organization, or a government source). After completion, perceived risk and perceived benefit were assessed, and participants indicated their trust in the information sources to which the materials had been attributed. Direct and trust-mediated attitude change effects were estimated in a multi-sample structural equation model. The results showed that information provision had little effect on people's attitudes toward genetically modified foods, and that perceptions of information source characteristics contributed very little to attitude change. Furthermore, the type of information strategy adopted had almost no impact on postexperimental attitudes. The extent to which people trusted the information sources appeared to be driven by people's attitudes to genetically modified foods, rather than trust influencing the way that people reacted to the information. Trust was not driving risk perception-rather, attitudes were informing perceptions of the motivation of the source providing the information.     

Measuring intrapreneurship at the individual level: Development and validation of the Employee Intrapreneurship Scale (EIS)

Although employees are recognized to be key for organizational new venture creation and strategic renewal (i.e., intrapreneurship), the current literature on intrapreneurship from an individual-level perspective is fragmented, and a valid measurement instrument is lacking. We address this gap and start with presenting a review of the current literature on employee intrapreneurship. Based on this review we define employee intrapreneurship as an agentic and strategic work behavior aimed at new venture creation and strategic renewal. Next, two studies are presented aimed at developing and validating a measurement instrument that captures employee venture behavior and strategic renewal behavior as two facets of employee intrapreneurship: the Employee Intrapreneurship Scale (EIS). In Study 1, the EIS was created and its factorial validity examined in three departments of a public organization (total N = 1,475). In Study 2, using a sample of private sector employees (N = 243), the convergent and discriminant validity of the EIS was tested using self-ratings of personal initiative, reward sensitivity, and punishment sensitivity, as well as their innovativeness and risk-taking behavior as rated by a close colleague. The results indicate that the Employee Intrapreneurship Scale is a valid and reliable instrument for capturing employee intrapreneurship in multiple contexts. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.