Emotional strain in caregiving among African American grandmothers raising their grandchildren

African Americans are disproportionately represented in the number of grandparents raising their grandchildren. Using Role Strain Theory and Socioemotional Selectivity Theory, this study examines how older grandmothers fare relative to their younger counterparts. Eighty-five custodial African American grandmothers, aged 33-88 years old, completed demographic questionnaires and scales of Role Demand, Emotional Strain, Caregiving Strain Index, and Level of Care. Results showed older grandmothers experienced less emotional and caregiving strain relative to younger grandmothers. Furthermore, married grandmothers experienced less caregiving strain, and their age did not insulate them from the strain associated with the level of care. Implications are discussed.     

Grandparenting and Cognitive Functioning in China

Caring for grandchildren provides grandparents an opportunity to sustain an active lifestyle and remain socially engaged in older age. Studies have examined the association between providing care to grandchildren and grandparents’ cognitive function. However, these studies had several limitations and yielded mixed findings. Using data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study, this study examined the longitudinal association between caregiving and cognitive functioning in grandparents aged 50–75 years. Grandparents’ caregiving status and cognitive functioning were assessed in 2011, 2013, and 2015. Random-effects and fixed-effects regression models were estimated and compared. The full sample (20,000?+?person-year observations) was divided into four subgroups to examine gender and rural–urban variations. Being a part-time noncoresident caregiver was associated with higher scores on episodic memory for grandfathers but not for grandmothers. Compared with their noncaregiving counterparts, rural part-time multigenerational caregiving grandmothers had significantly better mental intactness and global cognitive functioning, while rural full-time noncoresident caregiving grandmothers had significantly better episodic memory. Caregiving status was not associated with any cognitive measure among urban grandmothers. Taken together, these findings suggest that Chinese grandparents enjoy cognitive benefits from providing casual or intensive care to grandchildren, but these benefits vary substantially by gender and rural–urban status.

     

Not on their own again: psychological, social, and health characteristics of custodial African American grandmothers

The article presents social and health indicators of depression among custodial African American grandmothers. Using a cross-sectional design, a sample of 99 custodial African American grandmothers caring for one or more grandchildren was included in the analysis. The results indicated that approximately 20% of custodial African American grandmothers were depressed. Depressed grandmothers were more likely to report having all ten chronic physical health conditions listed in the study. One additional chronic condition increased the probability of depression by 68%. Old age, more social support, and caring for older children were associated with low levels of depression. The proliferation of grandchildren being raised by African American grandmothers suggests the need for more research, policy, and programmatic interventions.     

Not on Their Own Again: Psychological,Social, and Health Characteristics of Custodial African American Grandmothers

SUMMARY

The article presents social and health indicators of depression among custodial African American grandmothers. Using a cross-sectional design, a sample of 99 custodial African American grandmothers caring for one or more grandchildren was included in the analysis. The results indicated that approximately 20% of custodial African American grandmothers were depressed. Depressed grandmothers were more likely to report having all ten chronic physical health conditions listed in the study. One additional chronic condition increased the probability of depression by 68%. Old age, more social support, and caring for older children were associated with low levels of depression. The proliferation of grandchildren being raised by African American grandmothers suggests the need for more research, policy, and programmatic interventions.     

Grandmothers Offering Regular Auxiliary Care for Their Grandchildren: An Expression of Generativity in Later Life?

The study explores the meaning that grandmothers who offer regular childcare attach to that experience and the extent to which the notion of generativity might explain the meaning of the experience of caring for a grandchild. Twenty-four Spanish grandmothers aged 60 and over who provided at least 12 hours a week of childcare were interviewed. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and qualitatively analyzed. The results suggest that grandmothers regard their childcare input as being part of their parental duty of helping in times of need. A range of consequences of caregiving were mentioned, generally positive and satisfactory. Our participants apparently began their caregiving task as an expression of parental generativity, although rewards associated with childcare are linked to grandparental generativity.     

Women in the middle: generational position and grandmothers' adjustment to raising grandchildren

This study compared the adjustment of two groups of grandmothers who were providing primary care for grandchildren in split-generation households: 25 grandmothers in the oldest generation of their families (G1), and 22 grandmothers who had living parents or in-laws (G2). It was hypothesized that because of potential demands on them as middle-generation women, G2 grandmothers would report greater burden and depression in their caregiving roles than G1 grandmothers. After controlling for numerous factors that are associated with generational position, the hypothesis was confirmed. In addition to being in the middle generation, having grandchildren with problems predicted elevated depression and burden. Grandmothers who were educated beyond high school also reported greater role burden.     

The Consequences of Caregiving: Effects on Women’s Employment and Earnings

Caregiving to family members comprises a major part of familial obligations in the United States. Informal caregiving is unevenly distributed in society, with women performing most of the work and bearing the burden of its costs. This paper addresses the cost dimension of informal caregiving to family members by examining whether and how it penalizes women’s employment. Drawing data from the 1987 and 1992 National Survey of Families and Households, we examine whether and how caregiving transitions affect changes in women’s labor force participation and the implications of this caregiving transitions for their earnings. We calculate how these effects vary for demographically different groups of women: those older and younger, with and without high levels of education, and married and not married. Our findings reveal that for most women, the initiation of caregiving led to a substantial reduction in their weekly hours worked and annual earnings. However, the effects were different for various subgroups of women: those older, with fewer skills, and more competing roles paid substantial costs if they began caregiving between 1987 and 1992.     

Connecting older grandmothers raising grandchildren with community resources improves family resiliency,social support,and caregiver self-efficacy

Custodial grandparenting can be especially challenging for older grandmothers facing age specific issues. Kinship navigator programs are social service delivery programs intended to inform grandparents and other relatives raising children about available resources and services, provide information specific to their individual needs, and help families navigate service systems. Our study utilizes self-report data from one kinship navigator federal demonstration project, which used a randomized control trial, to examine demographic characteristics for grandmothers under and over 55 years of age, whether grandmother caregivers (≥55 years) improve family resilience, social support, and caregiver self-efficacy, and which interventions improved outcomes for grandmothers (≥55 years). Each participant was randomly assigned to one of four groups: Usual Care (traditional child welfare services), Standard Care (family support and case management), Peer-to-Peer Care Only, and Full Kin Tech Care (peer navigators with computer access and interdisciplinary team). Thirty-nine percent of grandmothers (55-75 years) were mostly living in poverty, predominantly Caucasian, with 36% identifying as African American/Black, with at least one to two children at home. Repeated-measures ANOVAs for each subscale showed statistically significant within- and between-group differences for Family Functioning, Social Supports, Concrete Supports, Child Development, and Nurturing and Attachment, with the exception of Usual Care, which showed a decline in protective factors consistently across subscales. Future research with kinship families could qualitatively examine the experiences for older women in navigator programs and replication of kinship navigator programs could build capacity in data collection and maintenance systems to gain better perspective about how systems of care impact families.     

Health of grandmothers as caregivers: a ten month follow-up

This study examined changes, over 10 months, in self-assessed health, depression, anxiety, stress, coping and support in a convenience sample of 74 grandmothers living in the same home as grandchild(ren) and to compare them with grandmothers who had either primary (n = 49) or partial/supplemental (n = 25) responsibility for their grandchildren's care. Grandmothers showed high stability over ten months time, with many reporting elevated depression and parenting stress at both time points. Depression was associated with greater parenting stress, primary responsibility for caregiving, and with avoidant and minimizing coping. Better self-assessed health was linked with less parenting stress, and less formal and instrumental support. Study findings are discussed.     

The marital satisfaction of differently aged couples

We investigate how the marital age gap affects the evolution of marital satisfaction over the duration of marriage using household panel data from Australia. We find that men tend to be more satisfied with younger wives and less satisfied with older wives. Interestingly, women likewise tend to be more satisfied with younger husbands and less satisfied with older husbands. Marital satisfaction declines with marital duration for both men and women in differently aged couples relative to those in similarly aged couples. These relative declines erase the initial higher levels of marital satisfaction experienced by men married to younger wives and women married to younger husbands within 6 to 10 years of marriage. A possible mechanism is that differently aged couples are less resilient to negative shocks compared to similarly aged couples, which we find some supportive evidence for.     

Health of Grandmothers as Caregivers: A Ten Month Follow-Up

ABSTRACT

This study examined changes, over 10 months, in self-assessed health, depression, anxiety, stress, coping and support in a convenience sample of 74 grandmothers living in the same home as grandchild(ren) and to compare them with grandmothers who had either primary (n = 49) or partial/supplemental (n = 25) responsibility for their grandchildren's care. Grandmothers showed high stability over ten months time, with many reporting elevated depression and parenting stress at both time points. Depression was associated with greater parenting stress, primary responsibility for caregiving, and with avoidant and minimizing coping. Better self-assessed health was linked with less parenting stress, and less formal and instrumental support. Study findings are discussed.     

Grandparents providing care for grandchildren and employment status of grandparents in South Korea

This study examines the association between providing care for grandchildren and the economic status of grandparents, focusing on the employment status. This study asks two questions. First, is providing care for grandchildren related to Korean grandparents’ employment status? Second, are the intensities of providing care for grandchildren related to grandparents’ employment status? In examining these research questions, this study focuses on gender and caregiving intensity. The findings suggest that providing care for grandchildren was associated with Korean grandmothers’ employment status. In addition, there are different relationships between providing care for grandchildren and grandparents’ employment status according to the caregiving intensities.     

The Older Woman Sexually Abused as a Child:

It is estimated that 3 112 million women over the age of 60 endured sexual abuse as children, yet little is known of their experience. The effects of that experience can be devastating for women of any age, but may have particular consequences for older women. This paper selectively reviews what is known about sexual abuse for younger women. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder is suggested as a model for describing the effects of childhood sexual abuse on older women. Based on a review of the literature and examination of the model, possible consequences of childhood sexual abuse for older women are suggested. It is suggested that child sexual abuse may pose special problems for older women struggling with common aging themes such as dependency and caregiving, life review, and grieving. Finally, implications for clinical practice are offered.     

How Does the Age Gap Between Partners Affect Their Survival?

I use hazard regression methods to examine how the age difference between spouses affects their survival. In many countries, the age difference between spouses at marriage has remained relatively stable for several decades. In Denmark, men are, on average, about three years older than the women they marry. Previous studies of the age gap between spouses with respect to mortality found that having a younger spouse is beneficial, while having an older spouse is detrimental for one’s own survival. Most of the observed effects could not be explained satisfactorily until now, mainly because of methodological drawbacks and insufficiency of the data. The most common explanations refer to selection effects, caregiving in later life, and some positive psychological and sociological effects of having a younger spouse. The present study extends earlier work by using longitudinal Danish register data that include the entire history of key demographic events of the whole population from 1990 onward. Controlling for confounding factors such as education and wealth, results suggest that having a younger spouse is beneficial for men but detrimental for women, while having an older spouse is detrimental for both sexes.     

Health expectancies in Japan: gender differences and policy implications for women

Based on prospective observation of elderly people in the community in Japan, we compared the time-course of development and progression of physical disability between women and men. Men experienced disability at a younger age and at a faster rate than did women. The duration of time spent with disability in women was twice as long as in men. Consequently, women consume about two-thirds of the total resources of formal caregiving services in Japan. Women in Japan are increasingly educated, postponing marriage to higher ages, and less likely to care for parents in the home. Given these changes in family structure and social norms, the capacity for informal family caregiving has decreased dramatically. A recently enacted national long-term care insurance system may further change the picture of caregiving.     

Aging children and their older parents: the coming generation of caregiving

This study uses a data set of older children and their older parents to examine caregiving relationships. Using the 1993 Panel Study of Income Dynamics and the 1993 Health Care Burden file, we examine help given by children to their parents. We distinguish between daughters who are household heads and daughters who are wives. We find parents receive substantially more care from daughters than from sons. The caregiving role of daughters who are household heads differs notably from that of wives. An analysis of caregiving, employment, and house-work shows that children who are caregivers devote more combined hours to these activities than children who do not provide care.     

Sleep Behaviors in Older African American Females Reporting Nonmalignant Chronic Pain: Understanding the Psychosocial Implications of General Sleep Disturbance

This study examined factors that influence sleep quality in older African American women (N = 181) reporting chronic pain. Participants completed a series of questions assessing demographic and behavioral characteristics, health status, pain intensity, and sleep disturbance. Findings indicated that younger participants and those experiencing poorer physical functioning reported more difficulty sleeping due to pain. Similarly, participants who reported being awakened from sleep due to pain were younger and experienced greater pain intensity. Understanding the relationship between sleep and pain in this group of women may be useful in promoting effective disease management and sleep awareness among patients, caregivers, and healthcare professionals.     

Aging Children and Their Older Parents: The Coming Generation of Caregiving

ABSTRACT

This study uses a data set of older children and their older parents to examine caregiving relationships. Using the 1993 Panel Study of Income Dynamics and the 1993 Health Care Burden file, we examine help given by children to their parents. We distinguish between daughters who are household heads and daughters who are wives. We find parents receive substantially more care from daughters than from sons. The caregiving role of daughters who are household heads differs notably from that of wives. An analysis of caregiving, employment, and housework shows that children who are caregivers devote more combined hours to these activities than children who do not provide care.     

Growing Parental Economic Power in Parent–Adult Child Households: Coresidence and Financial Dependency in the United States, 1960–2010

Research on coresidence between parents and their adult children in the United States has challenged the myth that elders are the primary beneficiaries, instead showing that intergenerationally extended households generally benefit the younger generation more than their parents. Nevertheless, the economic fortunes of those at the older and younger ends of the adult life course have shifted in the second half of the twentieth century, with increasing financial well-being among older adults and greater financial strain among younger adults. This article uses U.S. census and American Community Survey (ACS) data to examine the extent to which changes in generational financial well-being over the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries have been reflected in the likelihood of coresidence and financial dependency in parent–adult child U.S. households between 1960 and 2010. We find that younger adults have become more financially dependent on their parents and that while older adults have become more financially independent of their adult children, they nevertheless coreside with their needy adult children. We also find that the effect of economic considerations in decisions about coresidence became increasingly salient for younger adults, but decreasingly so for older adults.     

Developing the Psychological Strain Scales (PSS): Reliability, Validity, and Preliminary Hypothesis Tests

Since its inception, the Strain Theory of Suicide has been tested and supported in a number of empirical studies. This social psychological theory can be employed as a complementary conceptualization to account for suicidal behaviors as well as mental disorders. However, the lack of consistent measurements of the strains limits the application of the theory in scientific research. Our research team has developed such scales for future testing of the Strain Theory of Suicide in a more systematic approach. For the initial items to measure the four strains (value, aspiration, deprivation, and coping), we solicited approximately 40 items for each strain with high face validity by about 30 fellow researchers. A preliminary examination of about 160 items for consistency and validity, with a sample of about 300 college students, yielded 20 consistent items for each of the four strain scales. Then, a second study was conducted at a different university with approximately 500 students to further streamline each of the four strain scales and test the validity of each with corresponding established scales and variables. As a result, 15 items were selected for each of the four Psychological Strain Scales (PSS). In correlation and multiple regression analyses, we found support for the hypotheses regarding the positive associations between psychological strains measured by the PSS and psychopathology including suicidal ideation. Follow up research with the new scales needs to be carried out in order to test the effects of psychological strains on suicide and mental disorders for various populations.