Gender Differences in Identity Processes and Self-Esteem in Middle and Later Adulthood

ABSTRACT

Gender differences were examined in the identity processes of identity assimilation (maintaining identity despite age changes), identity accommodation (changing identity) and balance (using both processes) and in the relationship of these processes to self-esteem. We tested a community sample of 222 adults (131 females and 91 males) ranging from 40 to 84 years of age (M = 57.5, SD = 12.1). Analysis of variance yielded evidence showing greater use of identity accommodation for women. Identity accommodation was negatively associated with self-esteem for both genders, while identity assimilation was positively associated with self-esteem for women only. For both men and women, identity balance was positively related to self-esteem. Women's use of the identity processes in relation to self-esteem is discussed. Societal views on aging are suggested to impact women, such that they engage in identity accommodation while benefiting from identity assimilation. From these findings, it appears that examining the processes contributing to the maintenance of self-esteem may be a more useful approach to characterizing the aging process and gender differences than focusing on mean differences alone.     

Perceptions of Aging Among Rural,Midwestern Senior Citizens: Signs of Women's Resiliency

ABSTRACT

This study utilized both quantitative and qualitative approaches to examine perceptions of aging among rural-dwelling senior citizens (203 women and 112 men), ages 65 and older. Quantitative results revealed that, despite no significant gender differences in the total number of medical conditions reported, women were less likely than men to report that health problems interfered with their daily functioning. Qualitative analyses revealed that women were particularly like to identify relationships, frame of mind, participating in activities, and religion/spirituality as important contributors to successful aging.     

The Legacy of the Great Recession in Italy: A Wider Geographical,Gender, and Generational Gap in Working Life Expectancy

Under the pressure of population aging the Italian pension system has undergone reforms to increase labor force participation and retirement age, and, thus, the length of working life. However, how the duration of working life has developed in recent years is not well understood. This paper is the first to analyze trends in working life expectancy in Italy. We use data from a nationally representative longitudinal sample of 880,000 individuals from 2003 to 2013 and estimate working life expectancy by gender, occupational category, and region of residence using a Markov chain approach. We document large and increasing heterogeneity in the length of working life. From 2003–2004 to 2012–2013, working life expectancy for men declined from 35.2 to 27.2 years and for women from 34.7 to 23.7 years, increasing the gender gap to 3.5 years. Both young and old were hit, as roughly half of the decline was attributable to ages below 40, half above 40. Working life expectancy declined for all occupational groups, but those in manual occupations lost most, 8.5 years (men) and 10.5 years (women). The North–South economic gradient widened such that men living in the North were expected to work 8 years longer than women living in the South. The fraction of working life of total life expectancy at age 15 declined to record lows at 40% for men and 34% for women in 2012–2013. Policies aiming at increasing total population working life expectancy need to take into consideration the socio-demographic disparities highlighted by our results.

     

Gender differences in retirement decisions in Hong Kong

The study of labor force participation at older ages and the process of retirement do not have a long tradition in Asia's newly developed societies. This study, based on telephone survey of 950 respondents, examines various socio-economic factors that would influence retirement decision among older workers in Hong Kong. The findings show that older men were more likely to participate in the labor force than older women. Interestingly, older workers, in particular older women, with pension were less likely to retire. Having a working spouse decreased the likelihood of retirement and older workers, in particular older women, living with married children were more likely to retire. Poor health also discourages the propensity to continue working at old age. These findings confirm that retirement entails much more than just a decision to stop work, and that there were gender differences in retirement decision. Finally, several policy challenges, with reference to elderly women, concerning older workers' labor force participation were discussed.     

Health Profiles and Profile-Specific Health Expectancies of Older Women and Men: The Netherlands

SUMMARY

This study focuses on gender differences in health profiles, and examines which health profiles drive gender differences in remaining life expectancy in women and men aged 65 and over in The Netherlands. Data from the first two cycles of the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam (n = 2,141 and 1,659, respectively) were used to calculate health profiles for individuals of 65–85 years. For both women and men, six profiles were found: I. cancer; II. “other” chronic diseases; III. cognitive impairment; IV. frailty or multimorbidity; V. cardiovascular diseases; and VI. good health. The further characterization of these types showed some gender differences. Remaining life expectancy for women was greater than for men in each health profile. A decomposition into health expectancies showed that both women and men could expect to live about 5 years in good health from age 66. The greatest gender differences in years spent with health problems were found for profile IV and for profile III. Their greater number of years spent in these health states have direct consequences for the type and cost of care women need.     

Gender differences in identity processes and self-esteem in middle and later adulthood

Gender differences were examined in the identity processes of identity assimilation (maintaining identity despite age changes), identity accommodation (changing identity) and balance (using both processes) and in the relationship of these processes to self-esteem. We tested a community sample of 222 adults (131 females and 91 males) ranging from 40 to 84 years of age (M = 57.5, SD = 12.1). Analysis of variance yielded evidence showing greater use of identity accommodation for women. Identity accommodation was negatively associated with self-esteem for both genders, while identity assimilation was positively associated with self-esteem for women only. For both men and women, identity balance was positively related to self-esteem. Women's use of the identity processes in relation to self-esteem is discussed. Societal views on aging are suggested to impact women, such that they engage in identity accommodation while benefiting from identity assimilation. From these findings, it appears that examining the processes contributing to the maintenance of self-esteem may be a more useful approach to characterizing the aging process and gender differences than focusing on mean differences alone.     

Explaining age differences in women’s emotional well-being: The role of subjective experiences of aging

ABSTRACT

Our study examines explanations for the “paradox” of older women’s better emotional well-being compared with younger women. We consider the role of subjective experiences of aging in a society that devalues older women. Using a sample of women (n = 872) from the National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States (1995–1996 and 2004–2006), we examine the role of five components of the subjective experience of aging in explaining older women’s better emotional well-being compared with younger women: age identity, conceptions of the timing of middle age, aging attitudes, aging anxieties, and self-assessed physiological changes. We find that, compared with women 50–54 years old, those 35–39 years old report lower positive affect, and those 25–49 report higher negative affect. These patterns are partially explained by younger women’s greater anxiety about declines in health and attractiveness and older women’s more youthful identities. Our study underscores the value of considering the implications of our ageist and sexist society for women’s emotional well-being across adulthood.     

Unanticipated Consequences: A Comparison of Expected and Actual Retirement Timing Among Older Women

ABSTRACT

The present study adds to the growing body of literature on women and retirement by means of a comparative analysis of the factors associated with anticipated retirement timing (among pre-retirees) and actual retirement timing (among retirees). Adopting a political economy of aging perspective, we argue that socially-structured patterns of gender inequality related to women's multiple roles across the life course affect patterns of retirement timing. Specifically, we hypothesize that the gendered nature of women's work-retirement decision-making is unanticipated during pre-retirement years. Logistic regression analyses are performed on data drawn from a sample of 275 women aged 45 and older living in the Vancouver area of British Columbia. A central finding is that while actual timing of retirement is affected by family caregiving responsibilities and by health/stress factors, pre-retirees do not perceive these to be important in their own expected retirement timing. Implications for social policy, education, and women's financial and psychological well-being in old age are elaborated.     

我国退休年龄延迟设计研究

本文针对当前我国＂未富先老＂、人口红利对经济增长的促进作用减弱及因人口老龄化进程加速而引起的社会养老负担过重等问题,依据人均预期寿命、劳动者参加工作的初始年龄和不同类型劳动对人体体力要求的差异等,就从事不同类型劳动的退休年龄标准进行了延迟设计。然后以国际上自我养老负担系数的合理取值范围为标准,就延迟设计方案的自我养老负担系数进行了测算。结果表明：延迟设计方案的退休年龄标准在当前及未来较短时期比较适合我国国情。但随着人均预期寿命的增长,也要结合自我养老负担系数的合理取值范围对退休年龄逐步调整,才能有效解决我国因人口老龄化逐步加深而引起的各种社会经济问题。本文试图为我国调整退休年龄标准提出可供借鉴的依据,进而有效地解决我国因人口老龄化逐步加深而对社会经济发展造成的负面影响。     

From the Replacement Rate to the Synthetic Indicator: A Global and Gender Measure of Pension Adequacy in the European Union

To measure the adequacy of pension systems in the world, one of the most commonly used indicators is the Replacement Rate. Our work is based on the statement that this indicator is imperfect itself to measure adequacy because it does not collect the multiple dimensions that it involves while being a static measurement. Consequently and based on the data provided by “The 2015 Pension Adequacy Report: current and future income adequacy in old age in the European Union” of the European Commission, in this paper we select a set of variables that are considered representative to measure the adequacy of pension systems from a dynamic and multidimensional perspective, and based on them, a synthetic adequacy indicator is developed. This indicator aims to compare European pension systems from the adequacy objective and to carry out continuous monitoring of the effects that the reform processes may have on the adequacy of pensions. The analysis is completed with the calculation of a gender indicator on pension adequacy for the European Union (EU-28) which identifies the still existing gap between men and women.     

The Morbidity Compression Debate: Risks,Opportunities, and Policy Options for Women

ABSTRACT

The morbidity compression theory proposes that we can compress the period of illness and disability in old age into an ever smaller period at the end of life. Although recent research offers fresh support for the theory, its validity remains uncertain. This paper demonstrates the importance of the theory and recent research in this area for women. It critiques the chief proponent and opposing views of the theory, and suggests a heightened emphasis on public policies promoting healthy lifestyles. These policies would reduce long-term care needs, save health care dollars, and improve the experience of aging.     

Relationships Among Older Women Living in a Nursing Home

SUMMARY

Literature suggests that women's skills in establishing close ties with other women help sustain them in old age by giving them a sense of control over their lives. This paper questions how such a notion may apply to women in a nursing home setting and contrasts women's experiences with those of men. It is a reanalysis of data from a previously reported study of institutionalized elders' social networks, this time with a specific focus on women residents' relationships with one another. Here, I consider the role of negative interaction in personal relationships, the meaning of intimacy and reciprocity in the nursing home context, and issues of age and gender. The final section, implications for practice and future research, includes a discussion of the opportunities for and constraints on relationship formation.     

Women,Aging, and Schizophrenia

SUMMARY

Schizophrenia is a psychiatric disorder of unknown etiology that typically has an onset in early adulthood and persists for the remainder of the life span. For most affected individuals, the illness is recurrent with psychotic symptoms that tend to be episodic in nature. The illness has pervasive and disruptive effects on many life domains; for example, women with schizophrenia are less likely to marry, bear children, and raise their own children than are women in the general population. The age of onset of schizophrenia is later on average in women than men, and women are overrepresented among those who develop the illness after the age of 45. Among younger patients with schizophrenia, women tend to have less severe symptoms than men and better outcomes; however, there are fewer gender differences among older patients with schizophrenia. Older women with schizophrenia are vulnerable to problems of both schizophrenia and aging. Schizophrenia symptoms typically continue in later years and include ongoing psychotic symptoms. Problems of aging such as cognitive decline and chronic medical conditions may be exacerbated by schizophrenia and the disorder is associated with premature mortality. Older women with schizophrenia are at risk for neglect of psychiatric and other health needs that are further compounded by limited social support and low socioeconomic status. More research and clinical attention is needed for the problems of older women with schizophrenia.     

Elderly Women Show Neither a Shortage of Strategies nor an Overreliance on Drugs in Handling Aging and in Dealing with Minor Health Problems

ABSTRACT

Women 65 years old and over make up the fastest growing population segment in North America. They are, particularly among the underprivileged, known to be heavy consumers of prescribed and over-the-counter drugs. The objective of this study was to identify the role of medication in underprivileged elderly women's strategies for aging well and dealing with minor health problems. A qualitative study was conducted among 40 women aged 65 to 75. Results show that elderly women seldom mention resorting to medication to “age well” although they report using this strategy to deal with minor health problems. Overall, the elderly women mentioned a wide range of strategies to cope with aging and minor health problems, which suggests that they are well equipped to face the challenges of aging.     

我国养老保险制度应考虑性别差异

包括我国在内的多数国家的养老保险制度没有考虑性别差异 ,使得妇女的养老保障没有男子充分。本文首先分析老年经济安全的性别差异 ;其次论证我国养老保险制度考虑性别差异的必要性 ;再次讨论了养老保险制度考虑性别差异的原则 ;最后对养老保险制度考虑性别差异的具体内容进行探讨     

Caregiving and Care-Receiving:

Many aspects of aging are women's issues. Yet research on aging has, until recently, focussed little attention of gender differences in the experience of growing old. Older women are more likely than older men to be poor, widowed, living alone in poor health, receiving assistance from both formal and informal supports, as well as being institutionalized in long-term care facilities. This secondary analysis of data from the 1982 Survey of the Elderly in the Waterloo Region attempts to address a gap in our knowledge concerning gender differences in the giving and receiving of social support in later years. Gender differences in (1) need for social support, (2) turning to formal assistance, (3) amount of formal assistance used, and (4) amount of informal assistance received were examined using analysis of variance and logistic regression procedures. The profile of social support that emerged suggests both similarities and differences in the way elderly men and women experience the giving and receiving of social support. Older women in this sample were found to be disadvantaged in the areas of income, health, years lived alone, and loneliness, relative to older men. Low-income was related to formal service use for older women, but not for older     

Gender Differences in Self-Regulation Patterns and Attitudes Toward Driving Among Older Adults

ABSTRACT

The automobile is essential for many older adults to fulfill their daily needs, especially since many live where they lack access to public transit or other acceptable modes of transportation. Increased self-regulation is one way older drivers continue to drive safely and maintain mobility. This research considers whether self-regulation attitudes and patterns differ by gender. Results indicate that women and men report distinct patterns of self-regulation behaviors. Age, health status, and household status also interact with gender, influencing the extent of self-regulation. The results also show that women report lower levels of confidence in their driving skills than men, although the difference varies based on whether or not a woman lives alone. Implications of these results are considered for an aging population—particularly women—that over the coming decades will be more reliant on the automobile for transportation than ever before.     

Knowledge and Attitudes About HIV/AIDS Among Community-Living Older Women: Reexamining Issues of Age and Gender

ABSTRACT

Although older women face unique risks related to HIV/AIDS, little empirical data is available regarding HIV/AIDS among women over the age of 65. In the present study, 160 community-living older women and men completed questionnaires regarding knowledge and attitudes about HIV/AIDS. Findings showed that although older women were less likely to talk to their physician about HIV than men, they maintained greater knowledge and generally dispelled myths about viral transmission. However, most older women believed that HIV/AIDS had limited personal relevance, possessed virtually no knowledge of age and gender specific risk factors, and professed HIV-associated stigma. These findings highlight the need for gender and age specific prevention programs.     

Workplace Well-being, Gender and Age: Examining the ‘Double Jeopardy’ Effect

This study examines the effects of age and gender on work-related subjective well-being, looking at job-related affective well-being and job satisfaction. Specifically, it investigates whether older women, who may be doubly disadvantaged in being old and being women, are victims of a “double jeopardy” effect. Self-reported survey-data were obtained from 446 adults employed full-time. The results of this study suggest that age seems to matter more than gender in the workplace, and that aging is associated with lower job-related well-being and higher job satisfaction. Although older women reported slightly lower job-related affective well-being than men, the decrease of subjective well-being with age impacts on both genders.     

How diversity gets lost: Age and gender in design practices of information and communication technologies

ABSTRACT

This article adopts an intersectional approach to investigate how age, gender, and diversity are represented, silenced, or prioritized in design. Based on a comparative study of design practices of information and communication technologies (ICTs) for young girls and older people, this article describes differences and similarities in the ways in which designers tried to cope with diversity. Ultimately diversity was neglected, and the developers relied on hegemonic views of gender and age, constructed older people and young girls as an “other,” and consequently their input was neglected. These views were thus materialized in design and reinforce such views in powerful yet unobtrusive ways.