实现基本养老保险全国统筹的障碍研究

实现基本养老保险全国统筹是我国养老保障体制改革的发展方向,但不同地区的基本养老保险制度、经济水平、人口结构等方面存在巨大差距,以及业已形成的地方利己主义行为,严重阻碍了基本养老保险全国统筹的实现。通过对基本养老保险全国统筹的障碍进行研究,得出缩小各地区之间的区域差距和明确中央政府与地方各级政府职责,有利于基本养老保险全国统筹的实现。     

Contracting-out in the United Kingdom: a partnership between social security and private pension plans

Contracting-out was introduced in the United Kingdom in 1978 as part of the arrangements for the State Earnings-Related Pension Scheme (SERPS) in order to avoid duplication with the existing well-developed defined benefit occupational pension plan sector. Members and sponsors of contracted-out schemes were able to save on their social security contributions in recognition of the fact that they were accruing equivalent benefits through an occupational pension plan. Later on this concept was extended to those with individual money purchase pension plans. This article considers a brief history of contracting-out, the principles of contracting-out, some problems associated with contracting-out, the implications of the introduction of stakeholder pensions and State Second Pension, and the latest rebate review and rebate orders. It examines how U.K. pensions policy since 1978 has been based on a partnership between social security and private pension plans.     

Contracting-Out in the United Kingdom

Abstract

Contracting-out was introduced in the United Kingdom in 1978 as part of the arrangements for the State Earnings-Related Pension Scheme (SERPS) in order to avoid duplication with the existing well-developed defined benefit occupational pension plan sector. Members and sponsors of contracted-out schemes were able to save on their social security contributions in recognition of the fact that they were accruing equivalent benefits through an occupational pension plan. Later on this concept was extended to those with individual money purchase pension plans. This article considers a brief history of contracting-out, the principles of contracting-out, some problems associated with contracting-out, the implications of the introduction of stakeholder pensions and State Second Pension, and the latest rebate review and rebate orders. It examines how U.K. pensions policy since 1978 has been based on a partnership between social security and private pension plans.     

Policies for a smoother transition from work to retirement

Japan has maintained a relatively high labor-force participation rate among older people. Although the rate had declined steadily until the mid-1980s, the trend has since reversed and the participation rate is expected to rise in the future. In contrast, the labor-force participation of older people has sharply declined in the United States and European countries, especially since the 1970s. This article explores why Japan's experience differs markedly from other advanced countries. Improved pensions have a strong influence toward early retirement, even in Japan. However, other factors such as a low replacement ratio, improved health, and several loopholes in the income test of the pension systems push up the participation rate of older people. The government also encourages active labor-force participation of senior citizens by introducing reformed partial working pensions and wage subsidies for workers in their second and third careers.     

Policies for a Smoother Transition from Work to Retirement

Japan has maintained a relatively high labor-force participation rate among older people. Although the rate had declined steadily until the mid-1980s, the trend has since reversed and the participation rate is expected to rise in the future. In contrast, the laborforce participation of older people has sharply declined in the United States and European countries, especially since the 1970s. This article explores why Japan's experience differs markedly from other advanced countries. Improved pensions have a strong influence toward early retirement, even in Japan. However, other factors such as a low replacement ratio, improved health, and several loopholes in the income test of the pension systems push up the participation rate of older people. The government also encourages active labor-force participation of senior citizens by introducing reformed partial working pensions and wage subsidies for workers in their second and third careers.     

Older people as resources in South Africa: Mpumalanga households

The extended family used to be relied upon to provide subsistence and care for older people in sub-Saharan Africa. However, recently South Africa has seen a reversal of roles, where older people now provide subsistence and care to younger generations; this role reversal is being accelerated by HIV/AIDS deaths among young adults. In most rural households, the non-contributory old age pension (OAP) that is means-tested is an important factor in making older people breadwinners. Using data from the 2004 Mpumalanga Older People's Survey, we examined the changing role of older people, which has been influenced mainly by changes in household structure and old age pension. Findings show that in 63% of matrifocal, multigenerational households, 76% of older people are the sole providers of household necessities, caring for the sick and grandchildren in increasingly skip-generation households.     

居民养老保险:参保主体、筹资与待遇水平

本文从参保结构、筹资水平和待遇水平等3个方面对城乡居民养老保险制度进行了分析。研究发现,在参保结构方面,伴随着城镇化率的提高,居民养老保险参保人数的相对比例在下降;在筹资水平方面,个人缴费水平过低,其主要原因是财政补贴资金激励性不足,从而需要在进一步提高财政补贴的同时,优化补贴结构,提高对个人缴费的激励作用;在待遇方面,居民养老金总体水平较低、但增长幅度较大,与职工待遇相比,替代率的差距要远远小于绝对额的差距。     

Policymaking for Diversity Among the Aged in India

Abstract

Population aging is occurring rapidly in India, and the implications of an aging society are likely to be experienced in an adverse manner unless immediate steps are taken to provide social security for all of India's older population. Current provision by central and state governments is grossly inadequate. This article analyzes the major Indian states across three income groups and describes the differences and inequalities across states and rural/urban areas with regard to income, living arrangements, pension benefits, etc. The efforts by central and state governments to meet the needs of older persons are outlined and critiqued. Suggestions are made for the establishment of more equitable income security, and health and social services schemes.     

Economic security for the elderly in India: an overview

The basic concept of social security is not new in India. Traditionally, a sort of moral economy existed to provide security to older destitute and other vulnerable groups in society. However, gradually, traditional support systems are disappearing, and state-based social security systems have come into existence. Under standardized economic security policies, government is covering retirement benefits for those in the organized sector; economic security benefits for those in the unorganized sector; and old-age pension for rural elderly. These are contributory as well as non-contributory programs. Besides life insurance approaches, savings-linked insurance and Annapurna (food security) are other important programs. However, in terms of coverage, program quality and effectiveness have been largely criticized by social security experts, suggesting immediate reforms to old-age programs.     

农村居民养老保险财政补贴的福利效应研究

财政补贴是农村居民养老保险制度的核心,是农村居民养老保险制度推行和发展的关键。本研究从保障农民基本生活、调节收入分配、促进农村消费和激励农民参保缴费等4个维度对农村居民养老保险财政补贴的福利效应进行分析,发现当前补贴政策存在保障水平不高,地区分配不均,可持续性不强,激励约束不到位等问题。认为通过加大财政补贴支持力度,明确养老待遇调整机制,改善基金运营监管,调整参保缴费激励方案等多重措施,可以更好地发挥农村养老保险制度的福利效应,实现制度从规模扩张向高质量发展的转变。     

Pension Reforms,Working Patterns and Gender Pension Gaps in Europe

European pension reforms are dominated by the principles of privatization and individualization. Privatizing and individualizing pension entitlements call for a redefinition of the responsibilities of states and individuals. Moreover, statutorily introducing individualization calls for equal opportunities to be guaranteed. However, the implementation of equal opportunities is a long way off because pension‐determining factors are still subject to gender distinctions, among other things. Gender distinction is inherent in life courses as well as in welfare arrangements. Welfare arrangements determine the legitimate reasons for gaining pension rights, how the measures of different entitlements are interrelated and which factors hamper a person's ability to fulfil the pension norm. This article analyses the link between welfare arrangements and women's life courses for a better understanding of the gendered norms of pension entitlements by focusing on gendered wages and life expectancies, gendered working patterns, and the connection between care and pensions.     

Pensions,poverty and wellbeing in later life: Comparative research from South Africa and Brazil

This paper draws on two linked studies of social policy and wellbeing in later life. The studies make comparisons between distinct groups of older people at the national and sub-national levels, as well as over time. The paper reflects on some of the main challenges for operationalising this complex design, as well as for interpreting findings and identifies lessons for other studies. The first study, conducted in 2002, included a questionnaire survey of around 2000 households containing at least one older person in South Africa and Brazil, supplemented by a set of in-depth qualitative interviews. Intriguingly, these countries had remarkably similar pension programmes, providing the majority of older people a reliable payment of roughly US$3 a day. This offered the prospect of exploring the effects of similar interventions in distinct developmental and cultural settings. In both countries, we found that these pensions had a substantial impact on the prevalence and depth of poverty in the study households, and were usually shared between older people and other family members. The second survey took place in 2008/9 and involved revisiting the households included in the 2002 survey, along with a separate set of in-depth interviews. This provided an opportunity for dynamic analysis of economic and wellbeing effects, against a backdrop of increased divergence in the wider national settings. Among other things, this revealed high and increasing levels of life satisfaction across all the study groups, although the extent to which this was directly related to generous pension provision cannot be ascertained.     

精神残疾群体的社会保障需求与供给:现状、问题与发展建议

精神残疾人多生活困难,构成社会最为弱势的群体。本文采用实地研究与文献研究的方法,对精神残疾人的社会保障需求与供给进行专门考察。研究发现,精神残疾群体的主要需求包括治疗、基本生活支持、康复、长期照护与监管以及社会参与。对此,我国政府已通过多项社会保障制度安排予以回应,基本满足了精神残疾人的基本生活与治疗需求,但还存在社区康复服务匮乏、替代性照护服务供给不足、就学、就业难等问题。基于以上发现,本文认为精神残疾人的基本生存权虽得到较好保障,但是对其发展权和参与权依然关注不足。原因在于当前精神残疾人社会保障存在三个不平衡:经济保障与服务保障发展的不平衡,医疗服务与社会服务发展的不平衡,以及卫健、民政、残联不同部门能力与投入的不平衡。针对这些问题,笔者对未来政策的完善提出了参考建议。     

Economic Security for the Elderly in India

Summary

The basic concept of social security is not new in India. Traditionally, a sort of moral economy existed to provide security to older destitute and other vulnerable groups in society. However, gradually, traditional support systems are disappearing, and state-based social security systems have come into existence. Under standardized economic security policies, government is covering retirement benefits for those in the organized sector; economic security benefits for those in the unorganized sector; and old-age pension for rural elderly. These are contributory as well as non-contributory programs. Besides life insurance approaches, savings-linked insurance and Annapurna (food security) are other important programs. However, in terms of coverage, program quality and effectiveness have been largely criticized by social security experts, suggesting immediate reforms to old-age programs.     

The Pension Reform Process in France

The French old age security system was constructed progressively following the end of the Second World War in response to the pressing problem of old age poverty. In 1945 less than 40% of old people (4.5 million in total) had a pension. This was despite the existence of some pension systems dating back to the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century. Monetary depreciation also meant that the pensions of those who enjoyed such benefits were very low. Historical factors explain the current pension system's organization and institutional division favouring pay-as-you-go schemes. While the French pension system has been largely successful in eliminating old age poverty, it today faces new challenges and constraints that make reform necessary. The debate as how best to reform the pension system is a long and winding one. Change is slow and incremental. Ideological, social and cultural factors and their interrelations help explain the difficulties in effecting reforms.     

Attitudes of the Elderly Towards Living Arrangements

The aim of this paper is twofold:(1) to present evidence supporting the contention that the significant rise in older people living alone has been influenced by transformations in societal values, attitudes and norms, and (2) to discuss several key methodological issues that appear when subjective variables such as privacy, independence and social expectations are integrated into our research to explain housing and living arrangement decisions. In particular, attention is devoted to individual rationalizations of current living arrangements as well as causal direction and independence of the attitudinal factors. The data used in this work were drawn from a 1983 study based on living arrangement decision-making among the elderly.     

Pension reforms and old people in Poland: An age,class, and gender lens

Research on the socio-economic transition in and subsequent pension reforms in Eastern and Central Europe tend to view age as a social status, not a power relation. In addition, studies that explore the policy consequences for old people tend to homogenize them or focus on only one form of inequality. However, State actions, articulated in pension reforms, can distribute the economic costs of reforms unevenly across different groups.This paper considers the present and the future ramifications of the Polish pension reforms on the economic well being of diverse groups of old people. Poland provides an especially interesting case because the new system, which will take full effect in 2006, includes mandatory personal accounts. Throughout our analysis, we attend to inequality and the class- and gender-specific implications of the reforms. We argue that age, gender, and class relations underlie social policies related to pensions. Old people are depicted and manipulated by State officials in ways that allow the latter to attain economic stability and legitimate their authority among other constituencies, especially the young. Finally, analysis of the expected outcomes of the Polish new pension system that includes personal accounts provides a reference point against which proposals in other countries, such as the U.S., debating the introduction of similar systems can be assessed. Thus, we conclude by discussing some trends relevant to future Polish retirees and briefly state the implications of our discussion for these debates.     

Financial worry among older people: Who worries and why?

This study sought to clarify what drives economic worries among older people. Based upon the data from a national sample of adults aged 65 and older in Israel (N = 550), we examined associations between financial worry and economic status, lifestyle, social network, concerns about functional health, long term care needs and cognition, and population group. The main financial worry was that pension funds will not suffice for one's entire life. Multivariate analysis revealed that financial worry was negatively related to perceived income adequacy and age, and positively related to concerns about care and to apprehensions regarding one's ability to make decisions. Immigrants from the former Soviet Union were found to worry less. Understanding the different sources of financial worries among older people is essential insofar as older people are increasingly expected to take personal responsibility for their financial futures. Dealing with negative outcomes that stem from financial worries are important programming and policy goals in an era of population aging.     

Is Swedish pension reform the right medicine for aging Europe?

Following the Second World War, the idea of the life course with distinct periods of education, work, and retirement became popular as a result of the alliance of interests of unions and management, with politicians seizing the opportunity to accommodate them. These "social partners" implemented benefit rules and created practices for using old age and disability to ease the exit of older workers. Although justifiable at the time, now those rules and practices hinder individual and employer incentives to invest in human capital and work environments that enable older workers to remain in the workforce. The article argues that the workforce environment of the coming half-century, which is relevant for persons born around 2000, is much different from that a hundred years earlier, which determined the opportunities for people born around 1900. People are healthier and live much longer and work environments are friendlier. The article argues that it is no longer justifiable to subsidize exit from the workforce around the age of 60 for healthy workers, especially in view of the coming labor shortage in Europe. It also argues that the introduction of the principles of the Swedish NDC pension reform in Europe would provide possibilities for flexible exit from the workforce and remove impediments to labor mobility in Europe, which are embedded in many of Europe's present pension arrangements.     

Seeking Social Security: An Alternative Motivation for Mexico-US Migration

In this analysis we investigate the degree to which the absence of effective pension systems may generate motivations for international migration as a means of self-financing retirement. Using ethnosurvey data gathered in selected Mexican communities and US destination areas, we estimate models to predict the odds of US migration from indicators of relative wages and whether or not jobs in Mexico were covered by that country's social security system. We find that by holding constant the binational differential in expected wages, the odds of out-migration were much higher for male household heads working in jobs that were not covered by social security compared with those working in jobs that enjoyed such coverage. Subsequent analyses showed that the odds of receiving a pension in old age were systematically higher for former US migrants, and that the likelihood of pension receipt rose steadily as the number of US trips and amount of US experience accumulated.