婚姻状态对女性劳动参与的影响——加入内生性的考察

婚姻是影响女性劳动参与的一个重要因素,但是国内已有研究只是将婚姻状态作为控制变量,缺乏对婚姻状态与劳动参与之间作用机理的深入分析,女性市场劳动参与和其婚姻状态之间的内生性也一直被忽视。本文从劳动参与决策出发,从市场工资与保留工资的决定因素入手,使用第三期妇女社会地位调查数据进行实证分析,在婚姻的框架下分别探讨个人特征、家庭特征、世代特征和宏观经济特征对女性劳动参与的影响。基于Probit模型的回归结果,已婚状态和未婚相比对女性的劳动参与存在显著的负向影响,对城镇女性的负向影响大于对农村女性的负向影响。对于不同出生队列,婚姻状态对女性劳动参与的影响存在差异。Wald检验发现对于城镇样本,婚姻状态和劳动参与之间确实存在内生关系,对于农村样本,婚姻状态对于劳动参与并不是一个内生变量,因此后文的内生性分析是基于城镇样本进行的。在通过人口性别比和婚姻登记条例的修订控制住内生性后,通过两步法的IV Probit模型回归结果显示已婚状态对城镇女性劳动参与的负向影响显著变大,这与现在很多城市女性因为接受教育和追求事业而晚婚密切相关。提高已婚女性的劳动参与需要社会公共服务体系和劳动力市场的完善,缓解女性面临的家庭和事业的冲突。     

婴幼儿机构托育对女性劳动参与的影响

本文分析0～3岁婴幼儿机构托育对女性劳动参与和劳动时间的影响。研究表明,机构托育能显著提高女性劳动参与的概率,且主要影响年轻女性,但并不会影响已就业女性的劳动时间。无论是城市还是农村户籍、一孩还是多孩家庭、是否有祖辈帮助,机构托育对女性劳动参与均有显著促进作用。而对于男性的劳动参与和劳动时间来说,婴幼儿机构托育均不会产生显著影响。此外,有0～3岁婴幼儿、但未获得机构托育的女性相比于无婴幼儿的女性而言,其劳动参与概率显著更低,“母职惩罚”确实存在。而那些有0～3岁婴幼儿并得到机构托育的女性与无婴幼儿的女性在劳动参与上无显著差别,说明婴幼儿机构托幼能够有效缓解“母职惩罚”。本文提出,加强3岁以下婴幼儿社会机构托育服务,能积极促进女性劳动参与和帮助女性发展,是构建生育友好型社会和促进家庭发展的重要配套政策。     

子女数量对已婚女性劳动供给和工资的影响

本文利用中国健康与营养调查数据估计了子女数量对已婚女性劳动供给、工作时间投入和工资水平的影响,并通过采用工具变量法和赫克曼两步法(Heckman two-step)解决了回归分析中子女数量的内生性问题以及工作时间和工资方程中存在的样本选择问题,第一次全面考察了中国城镇和农村已婚女性生育率对其劳动供给行为和工资水平的因果效应。实证分析表明,生育子女数量的增加会显著降低城镇已婚女性的劳动供给,并且显著降低在业女性的工作时间投入和工资水平。生育子女数量的增加对农村已婚女性是否参与非农就业没有显著影响,对参与了非农就业女性的工资也没有显著影响,但是显著降低了其工作时间投入。     

农地确权促进了农村女性劳动参与吗？——基于CLDS数据的实证研究

基于劳动经济学相关理论，本文利用中国劳动力动态调查2014年和2016年混合横截面数据，使用工具变量分析方法实证检验农地确权对农村女性的就业促进效应及影响机制。研究发现，农地确权显著的促进了农村女性劳动参与。进一步讨论发现，确权因婚育状况、人力资本和工作经历的不同而对农村女性的农业劳动参与和非农劳动参与产生异质性影响。因此，未来确权工作中应注重土地经营权确权中的性别差异，考虑农村女性就业需求的多维度因素，提高农村女性的就业机会和整体福利水平。     

全面二孩政策对女性就业的影响——基于企业人工成本中介效应的分析

基于适龄职业女性问卷调查数据,采用探索性因子分析、 验证性因子分析和层级回归分析方法,研究了我国全面二孩政策对女性就业的影响.研究发现:全面二孩政策对女性就业存在多方面的影响,对女性求职艰难、 薪酬福利减少、 退出劳动力市场、 非正规就业增加均具有显著正向影响,且企业人工成本在全面二孩政策对女性就业的影响中起着显著中介作用.全面二孩政策对不同年龄、 不同学历、 不同企业性质、 不同收入、 不同城市的女性就业的影响存在差异,年龄较轻、 学历较低的女性表现为求职艰难,年龄较长、 学历较高的女性表现为薪酬福利减少,外资企业和私有企业女性员工比国有企业女性员工、 高收入女性员工比低收入女性员工、 一线城市和二线城市比三线城市的女性员工受影响程度更高.     

中国女性的社会经济特征与生育决策

女性的社会经济特征、婚姻地位及家庭结构等因素在家庭生育决策中起着重要作用。对2006年中国健康营养调查中的家庭微观数据的分析结果表明,女性的受教育程度、社会地位等社会经济特征与生育率显著相关;体现家庭结构的丈夫劳动参与和夫妻年龄差距等指标也对生育率有显著影响。另外,通过对城镇与农村的比较分析得出农村女性受教育程度的提高对生育率的影响要大于城镇。     

延边朝鲜族地区女性劳动力流动与留守研究

本文利用国家计生委2011年对吉林省中朝边境地区人口流动的抽样调查数据对我国延边朝鲜族地区的女性劳动力流动与留守问题进行分析。研究发现女性劳动的外流决定显著的受到家庭中学龄前儿童数量、婚姻状况及本地劳动力市场成熟程度的影响;对于本地非外出的女性劳动力其短期外出规划会受到家庭中是否已有劳动力外出等多个变量的影响,而长期外出规划则仅仅受到其当前劳动分工的影响;相对于非留守女性,留守妇女的家庭负担主要来自于抚育子女。     

女性就业问题三议

由于机会和条件的不平等,女性在就业竞争中已明显处于劣势.这种状况对女性生存质量和整体素质的提高已构成不容忽视的影响.为此,本文主张尽快建立生育保障制度,实行阶段性就业和非全日制就业,制定两性公平竞争的劳动力市场政策,以使女性的劳动权利得到应有的保护.     

生育行为对中国女性健康人力资本维护的影响——来自2019年全国人口与家庭动态监测的证据

当前极低生育率下如何提振人们的生育意愿具有重要意义，更好理解女性在生育过程中所付出的“隐形代价”，可以为三孩生育政策下的生育支持措施完善提供研究支持。基于2019年全国人口与家庭动态监测调查数据，文章采用中介效应模型实证分析了生育行为对我国女性健康人力资本维护的影响。研究发现，相较于未生育女性，中国已育女性减少了身体检查和体育锻炼，但在饮食健康方面有所改善。这一结果与女性生育后从生产劳动转向再生产劳动的过程密切相关。其中，生育后退出生产劳动降低了女性身体检查概率，但对促进体育锻炼和改善饮食健康有一定帮助；而生育后再生产劳动参与的增加则会抑制身体检查和体育锻炼行为，但促使女性采取更健康的饮食习惯。此外，与祖辈共同居住加剧了生育行为对女性身体检查和体育锻炼的负面影响，且消除了对健康饮食的改善作用。而女性参加办公室工作也会加剧生育行为对体育锻炼的负面影响，并削弱对健康饮食的促进作用。基于此，从拓展孕产健康服务边界，实施儿童照料和体育锻炼兼容性政策，完善家庭和社会侧生育支持政策，推动健康知识普及工作以及规划女性全面发展等方面提出维护和发展女性健康人力资本的若干建议。     

劳动市场中女性的崛起——来自技术变迁视角的考察

第四次信息技术改变了男女劳动市场的绩效,女性在劳动市场的就业机会、职业选择、收入水平以及福利待遇等方面有了显著提升。文章采用任务模型,利用CGSS2003和CGSS2015跨年度数据,运用Logit回归和OB(Oaxaca-Blinder)分解方法进行反事实构建,检验技术变迁对女性劳动市场绩效的影响。研究发现：女性在劳动市场就业机会提升源于技术变迁偏向于非常规任务的“女性优势”,即技术变迁偏向增加女性具有优势的非常规职业需求,从而带来女性就业机会和劳动市场绩效提升。同时女性在获得更高收入上仍与男性存在较大差距,说明男女“同工不同酬”以及企业偏女性雇佣对女性剩余的侵占。反事实构建发现高等教育女性就业比重增加并不能完全解释女性在劳动市场的崛起,这展示技术变迁不仅直接提升女性劳动市场的地位,而且还间接提升女性的教育回报率。研究创新之处在于从技能需求视角对比不同性别劳动市场绩效的差异,强调技术变迁带来的男女就业机会的收敛趋势。文章从技术变迁的视角解释女性在劳动市场的崛起,审视女性劳动市场就业地位的上升所带来的经济价值,对智能时代劳动力全面发展和人才配置具有重要意义。     

An analysis of variations in U. S. fertility and female labor force participation trends

This study is based on time series data from 1947–1977 on fertility and female labor force participation, and examines (a) the effects of male relative income and female earnings on the level and timing of fertility and female labor force participation, and (b) the relative importance of variations in relative income and female wage rates in explaining the fluctuations in both fertility and female labor supply. The results suggest that relative income exerts a significant positive effect on fertility and a negative effect on female work effort. However, female wage rates appear to be the dominant factor in explaining variations in fertility and female labor force participation over the past two decades, with increases in female earnings leading to both depressed fertility and increased labor force participation of women.     

Female Professional Work Opportunities: A Cross-National Study

While economic development has been associated with increased participation of females in the labor force, it remains problematic whether sexual equality within the labor force has also increased. This study examines the differentiation of structural variables, specifically economic and demographic variables, on female participation and sexual equality within a specific sector of the labor force: the professions. The units of analysis are primarily European countries with the inclusion of the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. The findings indicate that those economic development factors (female higher education enrollment rate and professional demand) significantly related to the female professional participation rate are distinct from those structural factors (economic growth rate, working age male deficiency) affecting sexual equality within the professional sector.     

东北地区城镇家庭劳动供给行为研究——基于劳动供给离散选择模型的经验分析

文章建立了一个劳动供给离散选择模型,用于分析东北地区城镇居民的家庭联合劳动供给行为。研究结果表明,整体上女性劳动参与和工作时间的自身工资弹性分别约为0.151和0.175,交叉工资弹性分别约为-0.009和-0.015;而男性劳动参与和工作时间的自身工资弹性分别约为0.034和-0.024,交叉工资弹性分别约为-0.115和-0.134。随着家庭收入的增加,无论女性还是男性,劳动参与和工作时间的自身工资弹性及交叉工资弹性均呈递减趋势。因此,设计和实施提高工资水平的公共政策将会促进东北地区城镇居民的劳动供给,特别是对低收入群体劳动供给的促进作用将尤为明显。     

Why do some women participate in the labor force while others stay at home?

This study analyzed data from the 1970 Korean Census to uncover the determinants of women's labor force participation (LFP) in Korea, in 1970, when industrialization was beginning and the traditional sex-roles of Confucianism prevailed. The population surveyed included urban women aged 14-65 (19,277 married, 4373 single and living with parents, and 3222 single living independently). The study began by reviewing supply side explanations for LFP by women that predict women with high earning potential are likely to participate in the labor force, and noting that this economic explanation fails to consider the effects of cultural mechanisms that emphasize female domesticity. The study then comments on the labor market structure in Korea, in 1970, that led to limited employment opportunities for women, the domestic ideology that was prevalent during the early industrial stage, and the impact of this domestic ideology on Korean women. The logistic regressions used in the analytical methodology are then described, and it is hypothesized that women will be less likely to seek employment if they have adequate family resources, they are married and have children, and they are part of an extended family. It is further hypothesized that women's education will have no significant impact on employment and that university education is important as a marriage asset. The study results support this hypothesis in regard to single women living with parents, but reveal a slight effect of education on LFP among married women.     

Analysis of child labour in Peru and Pakistan: A comparative study

This paper analyses child labour participation and its key determinants using data sets from Peru and Pakistan. The results include tests of the ‘Luxury’ and ‘Substitution’ hypotheses that play key roles in recent studies on child labour and child schooling. The results reject both hypotheses in the context of child labour in Pakistan and suggest that income and related variables do not have the expected negative effect on children's work input. Rising wages of adult female labour in Pakistan, and falling adult male wage in Peru lead to increased participation of children in the labour market. The results on the combined country data formally establish the presence of strong individual country effects in the estimated regressions. For example, ceteris paribus, a Peruvian child is more likely to experience schooling than a Pakistani child. However, both countries agree on the positive role that adult female education and infrastructure investment in basic amenities can play in discouraging child labour and encouraging child schooling. Received: 24 August 1998/Accepted: 10 March 1999     

Trade Liberalization And Women’s Integration Into National Labor Markets: A Cross-Country Analysis

This paper examines the effects of trade liberalization and the risks associated with participation in the global trading system on women’s integration into national labor markets. Using data from 1970 to 1995, I identify two global determinants of the female share of national labor markets: trade openness and transnational corporate penetration. Several local predictors of women’s labor force participation are also identified. While a cross-sectional analysis indicates that women have been pulled into national labor markets as a result of neo-liberal economic reforms, more dynamic models show that these same forces can also lead to a preference for male, rather than female labor. Moreover, the analyses specify that the effects of trade openness and trade risk on female labor force participation are determined by position in the world-system and region. These results illustrate that arguments about the relationship between globalization and the feminization of the labor force, are too simplistic and neglect to account for the diverse consequences of global economic expansion on gender relations.     

An analysis of the impact of education on family size

The impact of education on family size is divided into a direct effect (holding labor force participation and age at marriage constant) and an indirect effect (varying labor force participation and age at marriage). The results suggest that (1) the indirect effect of education is greater at higher levels of the wife's education, (2) the direct effect is greater at lower levels of education in most cases, (3) the indirect effects do not vary systematically with husband's education, (4) but the direct effect does vary systematically with husband's education if the education of the wife is low but not if wife's education is high.     

Total fertility rate,women's education,and women's work: What are the relationships?

This paper presents the results of a statistical study, using cross-national data, on the relationships between total fertility rate and women's level of education and women's labor participation. Aggregate data on seventy-one countries were collected from numerous sources. Eight variables related to women's fertility, mortality, economic status, labor participation, and education are analyzed using multivariate linear regression analyses. Two models are considered. The first model regresses five variables on total fertility rate: per capita Cross National Product (GNP), percentage of women ages 15 to 19 who are married, female life expectancy at birth, calories available as a percentage of need, and percentage of married couples using contraception. The second model includes two additional regressors: the average number of years of schooling for women, and the percentage of women in the labor force. These seven variables are regressed on total fertility rate. Although the data are crude, the results of the analyses suggest that the model which incorporates women's level of education and women's labor participation captures the data better than the smaller model. The full model suggests that the percentage of women in the labor force is directly related to total fertility rate, whereas the average number of years of education for women is indirectly related to total fertility rate.     

吉林省城镇就业、失业和劳动参与的现状和对策

依据劳动经济理论,应用吉林省的微观数据,从劳动力的人口特征、受教育程度特征、户籍特征和地区差异等角度,研究吉林省失业率、就业率和劳动参与率的现状。针对吉林省城镇劳动就业中存在的问题,提出树立就业优先、发展新兴产业与第三产业、促进中小企业发展、健全劳动力市场体系和健全失业保险制度的政策建议。     

中国老年人的劳动参与状况及影响因素研究

本文利用2005年全国1%人口抽样调查数据,采用逻辑斯蒂多元回归分析,探讨性别、年龄、婚姻状态、健康状况、受教育程度、社会保险等因素对城乡老年人劳动参与可能性的影响。研究结果发现:缓解经济压力是老年人劳动的主要原因,但社会参与成为高学历城市老年人群参与劳动的重要动机;良好的身体状况提高了老年人劳动的可能性,对农村和男性老人的影响尤为突出,经济状况较差的老年人表现出更强的劳动参与倾向。